Series Editor''s Foreword xiii 1 Flat Panel Displays 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Emissive and non-emissive Displays 4 1.3 Display Specifications 4 1.3.1 Physical Parameters 5 1.3.2 Brightness and Color 7 1.

3.3 Contrast Ratio 8 1.3.4 Spatial and Temporal Characteristics 8 1.3.5 Efficiency and Power Consumption 9 1.3.6 Flexible Displays 9 1.

4 Applications of Flat Panel Displays 9 1.4.1 Liquid Crystal Displays 10 1.4.2 Light-Emitting Diodes 10 1.4.3 Organic Light-Emitting Devices 11 1.4.

4 Reflective Displays 11 1.4.5 Head-Mounted Displays 12 1.4.6 Touch Panel Technologies 12 References 13 2 Color Science and Engineering 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Photometry 16 2.3 The Eye 18 2.

4 Colorimetry 22 2.4.1 Trichromatic Space 22 2.4.2 CIE 1931 Colormetric Observer 24 2.4.3 CIE 1976 Uniform Color System 27 2.4.

4 CIECAM 02 Color Appearance Model 30 2.4.5 Color Gamut 31 2.4.6 Light Sources 32 2.4.6.1 Sunlight and Blackbody Radiators 32 2.

4.6.2 Light Sources for Transmissive, Reflective, and Projection Displays 33 2.4.6.3 Color Rendering Index 34 2.5 Production and Reproduction of Colors 34 2.6 Display Measurements 35 Homework Problems 36 References 36 3 Thin Film Transistors 39 3.

1 Introduction 39 3.2 Basic Concepts of Crystalline Semiconductor Materials 39 3.2.1 Band Structure of Crystalline Semiconductors 40 3.2.2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors 43 3.3 Classification of Silicon Materials 46 3.4 Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon (a-Si:H) 46 3.

4.1 Electronic Structure of a:Si-H 47 3.4.2 Carrier Transport in a-Si:H 48 3.4.3 Fabrication of a-Si:H 48 3.5 Polycrystalline Silicon 49 3.5.

1 Carrier Transport in Polycrystalline Silicon 49 3.5.2 Fabrication of Polycrystalline-Silicon 50 3.6 Thin-Film Transistors 52 3.6.1 Fundamentals of TFTs 52 3.6.2 a-Si:H TFTs 55 3.

6.3 Poly-Si TFTs 55 3.6.4 Organic TFTs 56 3.6.5 Oxide Semiconductor TFTs 57 3.6.6 Flexible TFT Technology 59 3.

7 PM and AM Driving Schemes 61 Homework Problems 67 References 67 4 Liquid Crystal Displays 71 4.1 Introduction 71 4.2 Transmissive LCDs 72 4.3 Liquid Crystal Materials 74 4.3.1 Phase Transition Temperatures 75 4.3.2 Eutectic Mixtures 75 4.

3.3 Dielectric Constants 77 4.3.4 Elastic Constants 78 4.3.5 Rotational Viscosity 79 4.3.6 Optical Properties 80 4.

3.7 Refractive Indices 80 4.3.7.1 Wavelength Effect 80 4.3.7.2 Temperature Effect 82 4.

4 Liquid Crystal Alignment 83 4.5 Homogeneous Cell 84 4.5.1 Phase Retardation Effect 85 4.5.2 Voltage Dependent Transmittance 86 4.6 Twisted Nematic (TN) 87 4.6.

1 Optical Transmittance 87 4.6.2 Viewing Angle 89 4.6.3 Film-Compensated TN 90 4.7 In-Plane Switching (IPS) 91 4.7.1 Device Structure 92 4.

7.2 Voltage-Dependent Transmittance 92 4.7.3 Viewing Angle 92 4.7.4 Phase Compensation Films 93 4.8 Fringe Field Switching (FFS) 95 4.8.

1 Device Configurations 95 4.8.2 n-FFS versus p-FFS 96 4.9 Vertical Alignment (VA) 98 4.9.1 Voltage-Dependent Transmittance 98 4.9.2 Response Time 99 4.

9.3 Overdrive and Undershoot Addressing 101 4.9.4 Multi-domain Vertical Alignment (MVA) 102 4.10 Ambient Contrast Ratio 103 4.10.1 Modeling of Ambient Contrast Ratio 103 4.10.

2 Ambient Contrast Ratio of LCD 103 4.10.3 Ambient Contrast Ratio of OLED 104 4.10.4 Simulated ACR for Mobile Displays 105 4.10.5 Simulated ACR for TVs 105 4.10.

6 Simulated Ambient Isocontrast Contour 106 4.10.6.1 Mobile Displays 106 4.10.6.2 Large-Sized TVs 108 4.10.

7 Improving LCD''s ACR 109 4.10.8 Improving OLED''s ACR 110 4.11 Motion Picture Response Time (MPRT) 112 4.12 Wide Color Gamut 114 4.12.1 Material Synthesis and Characterizations 115 4.12.

2 Device Configurations 116 4.13 High Dynamic Range 118 4.13.1 Mini-LED Backlit LCDs 118 4.13.2 Dual-Panel LCDs 120 4.14 Future Directions 121 Homework Problems 123 References 124 5 Light-Emitting Diodes 135 5.1 Introduction 135 5.

2 Material Systems 138 5.2.1 AlGaAs and AlGaInP Material Systems for Red and Yellow LEDs 140 5.2.2 GaN-Based Systems for Green, Blue, UV and UV LEDs 141 5.2.3 White LEDs 143 5.3 Diode Characteristics 146 5.

3.1 p- and n-Layer 147 5.3.2 Depletion Region 148 5.3.3 J-V Characteristics 150 5.3.4 Heterojunction Structures 152 5.

3.5 Quantum-Well, -Wire, and -Dot Structures 152 5.4 Light-Emitting Characteristics 154 5.4.1 Recombination Model 154 5.4.2 L-J Characteristics 155 5.4.

3 Spectral Characteristics 156 5.4.4 Efficiency Droop 159 5.5 Device Fabrication 160 5.5.1 Epitaxy 161 5.5.2 Process Flow and Device Structure Design 165 5.

5.3 Extraction Efficiency Improvement 166 5.5.4 Packaging 168 5.6 Applications 169 5.6.1 Traffic Signals, Electronic Signage and Huge Displays 169 5.6.

2 LCD Backlight 170 5.6.3 General Lighting 172 5.6.4 Micro-LEDs 173 Homework Problems 175 References 175 6 Organic Light-Emitting Devices 179 6.1 Introduction 179 6.2 Energy States in Organic Materials 180 6.3 Photophysical Processes 182 6.

3.1 Franck-Condon Principle 182 6.3.2 Fluorescence and Phosphorescence 183 6.3.3 Jablonski Diagram 185 6.3.4 Intermolecular Processes 186 6.

3.4.1 Energy Transfer Processes 186 6.3.4.2 Excimer and Exciplex Formation 188 6.3.4.

3 Quenching Processes 188 6.3.5 Quantum Yield Calculation 189 6.4 Carrier Injection, Transport, and Recombination 191 6.4.1 Richardson-Schottky Thermionic Emission 192 6.4.2 SCLC, TCLC, and P-F Mobility 193 6.

4.3 Charge Recombination 195 6.4.4 Electromagnetic Wave Radiation 195 6.5 Structure, Fabrication and Characterization 197 6.5.1 Device Structure of Organic Light-Emitting Device 198 6.5.

1.1 Two-Layer Organic Light-Emitting Device 198 6.5.1.2 Matrix Doping in the EML 200 6.5.1.3 HIL, EIL, and p-i-n Structure 202 6.

5.1.4 Top-Emission and Transparent OLEDs 204 6.5.2 Polymer OLED 205 6.5.3 Device Fabrication 206 6.5.

3.1 Thin-film Formation 207 6.5.3.2 Encapsulation and Passivation 210 6.5.3.3 Device Structures for AM Driving 211 6.

5.4 Electrical and Optical Characteristics 212 6.5.5 Degradation Mechanisms 214 6.6 Triplet Exciton Utilization 219 6.6.1 Phosphorescent OLEDs 219 6.6.

2 Triplet-Triplet Annihilation OLED 221 6.6.3 Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence 222 6.6.4 Exciplex-Based OLED 223 6.7 Tandem Structure 224 6.8 Improvement of Extraction Efficiency 226 6.9 White OLEDs 229 6.

10 Quantum-Dot Light-Emitting Diode 231 6.11 Applications 233 6.11.1 Mobile OLED Display 233 6.11.2 OLED TV 234 6.11.3 OLED Lighting 235 6.

11.4 Flexible OLEDs 235 6.11.5 Novel Displays 236 Homework Problems 236 References 237 7 Reflective Displays 245 7.1 Introduction 245 7.2 Electrophoretic Displays 245 7.3 Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays 249 7.4 Reflective Display Based on Optical Interference (Mirasol Display) 253 7.

5 Electrowetting Display 254 7.6 Comparison of Different Reflective Display Technologies 256 Homework Problems 256 References 257 8 Fundamentals of Head-Mounted Displays for Virtual and Augmented Reality 259 8.1 Introduction 259 8.2 Human Visual System 262 8.3 Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays 265 8.3.1 Paraxial Optical Specifications 265 8.3.

2 Microdisplay Sources 272 8.3.3 HMD Optics Principles and Architectures 275 8.3.4 Optical Combiner 280 8.4 HMD Optical Designs and Performance Specifications 286 8.4.1 HMD Optical Designs 286 8.

4.2 HMD Optical Performance Specifications 290 8.5 Advanced HMD Technologies 298 8.5.1 Eyetracked and Fovea-Contingent HMDs 299 8.5.2 Dynamic Range Enhancement 302 8.5.

3 Addressable Focus Cues in HMDs 305 8.5.3.1 Extended Depth of Field Displays 307 8.5.3.2 Vari-Focal Plane (VFP) Displays 308 8.5.

3.3 Multi-Focal Plane (MFP) Displays 309 8.5.3.4 Head-Mounted Light Field (LF) Displays 315 8.5.4 Head-Mounted Light Field Displays 316 8.5.

4.1 InI-Based Head-Mounted Light Field Displays 317 8.5.4.2 Computational Multi-Layer Head-Mounted Light Field Displays 321 8.5.5 Mutual Occlusion Capability 323 References 328 9 Touch Panel Technology 337 9.1 Introduction 337 9.

2 Resistive Touch Panel 338 9.3 Capacitive Touch Panel 339 9.4 On-Cell and In-Cell Touch Panel 344 9.5 Optical Sensing for Large Panels 347 Homework Problems 348 References 348 Index 351.