Preface xvi About the Editors xviii List of Contributors xix Part A Introduction 1 Introduction 3 Sandip Nandi and Dalia Nandi A. Optical Communication Networks 3 A.1 Historical Perspective 3 A.2 Essential Background 6 A.2.1 Optical Networks 6 A.2.2 SONET/SDH 6 A.
2.3 Multiplexing 7 A.2.4 All-Optical Networks 7 A.2.5 Optical Transport Network 8 B. Optical Switching in Networks 8 B.1 Historical Perspective 8 B.
2 Essential Background 9 B.2.1 Optical Switching in Networks 9 B.2.2 Optical Switching in Practice 9 B.2.3 Optical Switch Technology 10 C. Organization of This Book 10 Bibliography 11 Part B Switch Characterization 13 1 Optical Switches 15 Rajan Agrahari, Sambit Kumar Ghosh, and Somak Bhattacharyya 1.
1 Introduction 15 1.2 Electro-Optical Switching 16 1.2.1 Working Principle of Electro-Optical Switches 16 1.2.2 Realization of Electro-Optical Switches 17 1.3 Acoustic-Optical Switching 18 1.3.
1 Types of Acoustic-Optical Switching 18 1.3.2 Acoustic-Optical Device Materials and Applications 19 1.4 Thermo-Optical Switching 19 1.4.1 Working Principle of Thermo-Optical Switches 20 1.4.2 Realization of Thermo-Optical Switches 20 1.
4.3 Thermo-Optical Switch Materials and Applications 21 1.5 Liquid Crystal-Optical Switching 21 1.5.1 Types of Liquid Crystal-Optical Switches 21 1.5.2 Liquid Crystal-Optical Switch Applications 22 1.6 Photonic Crystal Optical Switching 22 1.
7 Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA) Optical Switching 23 1.8 Magneto-Optical (MO) Optical Switching 25 1.9 Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Optical Switching 25 1.10 Metasurfaces Switches 26 1.11 Conclusion 26 Bibliography 27 2 Electro-Optic Switches 31 Arpita Adhikari, Joydip Sengupta, and Arijit De 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Operating Principles 32 2.2.
1 Operating Principles of the Single-Mode Switch 32 2.2.2 Operating Principles of the Multimode Switch 32 2.3 Materials for the Fabrication of Electro-Optic Switch 34 2.3.1 Ferroelectric Materials 34 2.3.2 Compound Semiconductors 35 2.
3.3 Polymers 35 2.4 Device Structures of Electro-Optical Switches 36 2.4.1 1 × 1 Switch 36 2.4.2 1 × 2 Switch 37 2.4.
3 2 × 2 Switch 39 2.4.4 2 × 3 Switch 40 2.4.5 3 × 2 Switch 41 2.4.6 3 × 3 Switch 42 2.4.
7 1 × 4 Switch 42 2.4.8 2 × 4 Switch 43 2.5 Conclusions 43 Bibliography 44 3 Thermo-Optical Switches 47 Fulong Yan, Xuwei Xue, and Chongjin Xie 3.1 History of Thermal Optical Switching 47 3.2 Principles of Thermo-Optic Switch 47 3.2.1 Thermo-Optic Effect 47 3.
2.2 Trade-Off Between Switching Time and Power Consumption 48 3.2.3 Merits of Thermo-Optic Switch 49 3.3 Category 49 3.3.1 Material 49 3.3.
2 Implementation Principle 51 3.3.3 Device Architecture 51 3.4 Scalability 52 3.4.1 Binary Tree 52 3.4.2 Modified Crossbar 53 3.
4.3 Benes 54 3.5 Application Scenarios 54 Bibliography 55 4 Magneto-Optical Switches 57 K. Sujatha 4.1 Introduction 57 4.1.1 Types of Optical Switch 57 4.1.
2 How Does an Optical Switch Work? 59 4.1.3 Applications of Optical Switches 59 4.2 All-Optical Switch 60 4.2.1 Why is an All-Optical Switch Useful? 62 4.3 Magneto-Optical Switches 64 4.3.
1 Magneto-Optical Switch Features 64 4.3.2 Principles of Magneto-Optical Switches 65 4.3.2.1 The Design Core of the Magneto-Optical Switch 65 4.3.3 Magneto-Optic Effect 66 4.
4 Faraday Rotation 68 4.4.1 Phenomenological Model 68 4.4.2 Atomic Model 68 Bibliography 70 Further Reading 70 5 Acousto-Optic Switches 73 Sudipta Ghosh, Chandan Kumar Sarkar, and Manash Chanda 5.1 Introduction 73 5.2 Fundamentals of Acousto-Optic Effect 73 5.3 Acousto-Optic Diffraction 74 5.
4 Raman-Nath Diffraction 76 5.5 Bragg Diffraction 77 5.6 Principle of Operation of AO Switches 78 5.7 Acousto-Optic Modulator 80 5.7.1 Acousto-Optic Q-Switching 81 5.7.2 Telecommunication Network 82 5.
8 Recent Trends and Applications 83 5.8.1 Emerging Spatial Mode Conversion in Few-Mode Fibers 83 5.8.2 Lithium Niobate Thin Films 84 5.8.3 Optical Fiber Communication and Networking 85 Bibliography 86 6 MEMS-based Optical Switches 93 Kalyan Biswas and Angsuman Sarkar 6.1 Introduction 93 6.
2 Micromachining Techniques 94 6.2.1 Bulk Micromachining 95 6.2.2 Surface Micromachining 95 6.3 Switch Architectures 97 6.3.1 One-Dimensional Switches 97 6.
3.2 Two-Dimensional MEMS Switches 97 6.3.3 Three-Dimensional MEMS Switches 98 6.4 Mechanisms of Actuations 100 6.4.1 Electrostatic Actuation 100 6.4.
2 Magnetic Actuation 100 6.4.3 Thermal Actuation 100 6.4.4 Piezoelectric Actuation Mechanisms 100 6.4.5 Other Actuation Mechanisms 101 6.5 Optical Switch Parameters 101 6.
5.1 Switching Time 102 6.5.2 Insertion Loss 102 6.5.3 Crosstalk 102 6.5.4 Wavelength 102 6.
5.5 Power Consumption 102 6.6 Challenges 103 6.6.1 Optical Beam Divergence 103 6.6.2 Angular Control 103 6.6.
3 Reliability of Optical MEMS 103 6.7 Conclusion 104 Bibliography 104 7 SOA-based Optical Switches 107 Xuwei Xue, Shanguo Huang, Bingli Guo, and Nicola Calabretta 7.1 Introduction 107 7.2 SOA Structure 107 7.2.1 Active Region 108 7.2.2 Inter-Band Versus Intra-Band Transition 109 7.
2.3 Transparency Threshold 110 7.2.4 Gain Nonlinearity 111 7.2.5 Polarization-Insensitive SOA 111 7.2.6 Noise in SOA 112 7.
3 Design Criteria of SOA-Based Switch 113 7.3.1 Effect of Doping on Gain Dynamics 113 7.3.2 Gain Dynamic for SOA 115 7.3.2.1 Bulk-Active Regions 116 7.
3.2.2 Quantum Well/Multi-Quantum Well (MQW) Active Regions 116 7.3.2.3 Quantum Dots 116 7.3.3 Noise Suppression 117 7.
3.4 Scalability 118 7.4 Advancements on SOA-Based Switch 120 7.5 Networks Employing SOA-Based Switch 122 7.5.1 Metro-Access Network 122 7.5.2 RF Network 122 7.
5.3 Silicon Photonic Switching 122 7.5.4 Data Center Network 123 7.6 Discussion and Future Work 123 Bibliography 124 8 Liquid Crystal Switches 129 Swarnil Roy and Manash Chanda 8.1 Introduction 129 8.2 Liquid Crystal and Its Properties 131 8.3 LC Structures for Optical Switching 131 8.
3.1 Twisted Nematic (TN) cells 131 8.3.2 Surface-Stabilized Ferroelectric Liquid Crystal (SSFLC) Cells 133 8.3.3 Spatial Light Modulator (SLM) Cells 133 8.4 Liquid Crystal Switches 134 8.4.
1 Optical Crystal Switching Architectures 134 8.4.2 Switches Based on Polarization 135 8.4.2.1 Performance Analysis of Polarization-Based Switch Architecture 136 8.4.3 LC Amplitude and Phase Modulator 138 8.
4.4 LC-Based Wavelength-Selective Switches (WSS) 140 8.4.4.1 WSS Based on LCOS 141 8.5 The Future of LC switches 141 8.5.1 Liquid Crystal Photonic Crystal Fibers 141 8.
5.2 Ring Resonators with LC 142 Bibliography 142 9 Photonic Crystal All-Optical Switches 147 Rashmi Kumari, Anjali Yadav, and Basudev Lahiri 9.1 Idea of Photonics 147 9.2 Principles of Photonic Crystal All-Optical Switches (AOS) 148 9.3 Growth and Characterization of Optical Quantum Dots 150 9.3.1 Integration of PhCs-Based AOS with Optical Quantum Dots (QDs) 150 9.3.
2 Growth and Characterization of Quantum Dots 152 9.3.2.1 Growth of Quantum Dots 152 9.3.2.2 Colloidal Solution Via Chemical Synthesis 152 9.3.
2.3 Self-Assembly Technique 153 9.3.2.4 Characterization of Quantum Dots 154 9.3.2.5 Photoluminescence Spectroscopy 154 9.
3.2.6 UV-Vis Spectroscopy 154 9.4 Design and Fabrication 155 9.4.1 Sample Preparation 155 9.4.2 Lithography 155 9.
4.2.1 Electron Beam Lithography (EBL) 155 9.4.2.2 Optical UV Lithography 155 9.4.3 Etching 155 9.
4.3.1 Wet Etching 155 9.4.3.2 Dry Etching 156 9.5 Device Structure and Performance Analysis of Photonic Crystal All-Optical Switches 156 9.6 Challenges and Recent Research Trends of Photonic Crystal All-Optical Switches 159 Bibliography 160 10 Optical-Electrical-Optical (O-E-O) Switches 165 Piyali Mukherjee 10.
1 Introduction 165 10.2 Optical Switching Technologies: Working Principle 166 10.2.1 Optical-Electrical-Optical Switching 166 10.2.2 Optical Data Unit Switching 167 10.2.3 Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer (ROADM)-Based Switching 168 10.
2.4 A hybrid approach 169 10.3 Optical Transponders 169 10.3.1 WDM Transponders: An Introduction 169 10.3.2 Basic Working of Optical Transponders 170 10.3.
3 Necessity of Optical Transponder (OEO) in WDM System 171 10.3.4 Applications of Optical Transponders 171 10.3.5 Network Structure with Optical Transponder 172 10.3.5.1 WDM Ring Employing Line Network 172 10.
3.