Author Biographies xiii Preface xv 1 Introduction 1 Preliminary Remarks 1 History 6 References 7 2 Basic Terms 9 Average Values 9 Amplitude Distribution 10 Autocorrelation 12 Cross-Correlation 15 Noise Spectra 18 Autocorrelation Function and Spectral Power Density 19 Band-Limited Noise on the Spectrum Analyzer 20 References 22 3 Noise Sources 23 Thermal Noise 23 Nyquist Formula and Thermal Radiation 24 Validity and Experimental Confirmation of the Nyquist Formula 27 Thermal Noise Under Extreme Conditions 28 Shot Noise 29 Plasma Noise 33 Current Noise of Resistors and Contacts 34 Technical Resistors 34 Resistors Consisting of Semiconductor Material 36 Contact Noise 37 Generation-Recombination Noise 38 LF Noise from Transistors 40 References 42 4 Noise and Linear Networks 45 Narrowband Noise 45 Calculating with Phasors 45 Noise Source with Complex Internal Resistance 51 The Equivalent Noise Bandwidth 52 Network Components at Different Temperatures 54 Noise Generator and Attenuator 58 References 58 5 Nonlinear Networks 59 Mixing 59 Band-Limited RF Noise at Input 59 Amplitude Clipping 62 The Detector as a Nonlinear Network 63 The Noise Spectrum Behind a Quadratic Detector 65 The Noise Spectrum Behind a Linear Detector 69 The Sensitivity Limit 70 Noise with Signal 73 The Phase Sensitive Rectifier 74 Trace Averaging 76 References 78 6 The Noise Factor 79 Amplifier and Noise Power 79 The Noise Factor F 80 Cascaded Amplifiers 83 The Noise measure m 85 Definitions of Gain 85 Source and Load 89 Broadband and Spot Noise Factor 91 Noise Factor of a Passive Network 92 Antenna Temperature 93 The Reference Temperature T 0 = 290 K 98 Noise Factor and Detection Limit 99 References 100 7 Noise of Linear Two-Ports 101 Representation of Two-Ports 101 Noise Modeling Using the Chain Matrix 102 References 108 8 Calculation Methods for Noise Quantities 109 Noise Voltages, Currents, and Spectra 109 Calculating with Current, Voltage, and Noise Waves 112 The Noise Correlation Matrix 115 The Correlation Matrix of Passive Components 117 The Noise of Simple Passive Networks 119 Transformation of Noise Sources in Different Network Representations 128 Correlation Matrix and IEEE Elements 131 FET-Like Network with the Y-Correlation Matrix 134 Noise Sources at Input with ABCD Correlation Matrix 138 References 142 9 Diodes and Bipolar Transistors 143 Semiconductor Diode 143 Bipolar Transistor 145 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit 147 Hawkins BJT Noise Model 148 Two Approaches for the Collector Noise Current Source 155 BJT Noise Model with Correlation Matrices 157 The Π-Model 157 The T-Model with Correlation Matrices 161 Transformation of the Y-Sources to the Input 165 Modeling of a Microwave Transistor with Correlation Matrices 168 Simplest Π-Model 174 Contour Diagram 177 Transistor in the Circuit 179 Using the Contour Diagram 183 References 185 10 Operational Amplifier 187 Operational Amplifier as Circuit Element 187 Noise Sources of the Operational Amplifier 188 Consideration of 1/f Noise 193 Operational Amplifier as an Active Low-Pass Filter 195 References 198 11 Field Effect Transistors 201 Jfet 201 Mode of Operation of the FET 201 The Channel Noise 204 NoiseSourcesattheGate 205 The Correlation 206 Transformation to the Input 206 Simple Approximations 211 Field Effect Transistors for the Microwave Range (MESFET, HFET) 214 The Pucel Model 215 The Pospieszalski model 218 Discussion of the Results 225 Criteria for Noise Data 225 References 229 12 Theory of Noise Measurement 231 Measurements of Two-Ports 231 The Equivalent Noise Resistance 234 Voltage and Current Source 235 Voltage and Current Source with Correlation 237 3 dB and Y-Method 241 References 243 13 Basics of Measuring Technique 245 Principles of the RF-Receiver 245 The Detection Limit 245 Diode as RF Receiver (Video Detector) 249 RF and Microwave Range Receiver 254 Dicke Radiometer 258 Correlation Radiometer in the Microwave Range 261 Network Analyzer as a Noise Measurement Device 263 References 265 14 Equipment and Measurement Methods 267 Noise Measurement Receiver 267 Spectrum Analyzer 269 The Y-Method 273 Measurements in the Microwave Range 275 Selection Criteria of the Mixer 278 Image Rejection 279 Complete Noise Characterization 282 Analysis of Multi-impedance Measurements 283 Cold Source Method 285 The 7-State Method 287 On-Wafer Measurement of Cold Source 288 On-Wafer with Noise Generator According to the Y-method 293 References 296 15 Noise Generators 299 Vacuum Diode 299 Gas Discharge 300 Semiconductor Diodes 302 Excess Noise Ratio (ENR) 303 Hot-Cold Sources 305 References 307 16 Impedance Tuners 309 Impedance Transformation with Simple Methods 309 Mechanical Components for the Microwave Range 311 Electronic Components 313 Precision Automatic Tuner 315 Attenuation of the Tuner 317 References 318 17 Examples of Measurement Problems 319 Transistor in a Test Fixture 319 The Low Noise Block (LNB) of Satellite Television 322 Verification of a Noise Measurement 325 References 327 18 Measurement and Modeling of Low-Frequency Noise 329 Correlation Radiometer for Low Frequencies (f < 10 MHz) 329 The Low-Frequency Noise of Transistors 333 Measurement Setup for LF Noise 334 Examples of LF Noise Measurements on GaAs-HBT 336 Modeling of LF Noise 337 The Noise of the Microphone 337 References 342 19 Measurement Accuracy and Sources of Error 345 Accuracy of Measured Data 345 Error of Measurements 345 Inaccuracies of the Noise Measurement 346 Uncertainty of the ENR Calibration 349 Noise Source Mismatch 350 T0 = 290 K Is not TOFF 352 Mismatch in the System 353 Linearity of the Receiver 356 References 357 20 Phase Noise 359 Basics 359 Reciprocal Mixing 361 Description of Phase Noise 363 Spectral Power Density of Phase Fluctuations Sφ (f) 364 The Single Sideband Phase Noise L(f) 365 Spectral Power Density of Frequency Fluctuations SΔf (f) 365 Excursus on Frequency and Phase Modulation 366 The Allan Variance σ2 Y (τ) 368 Residual FM 370 Multiplication and Division 371 Amplitude Noise 371 Phase Noise and Jitter 372 References 374 21 Physics of the Oscillator 377 Oscillation Condition [1] 377 Simple Model of the Phase Disturbance [2] 378 Phase Slope, Resonator Quality, and Frequency Stability [3] 379 The Formula of Leeson [4] 382 Components of Oscillators 384 Influence of the Varactor Diode 386 Upward Mixing of LF Noise 390 The Influence of Microwave Noise on Phase Noise 393 References 396 22 Phase Noise Measurement 399 Basic Parameters 399 Spectrum Analyzer 399 Phase Detector Method 406 The Sensitivity of the Phase Detector 407 Example Calibration and Measurement 409 Keeping the Quadrature by a PLL 410 Delay Line as Frequency Discriminator 412 The Sensitivity of the Delay-Line Method 414 Configuration and Calibration 418 Resonator as Frequency Discriminator 420 Detection Limit 421 Comparison of Measurement Systems 422 Cross-Correlation Technique 423 Amplitude Noise 425 Problems with On-Wafer Measurement 429 Residual Phase Noise 430 References 432 Appendix 435 Noise Signals and Deterministic Signals 435 Random Signals 436 Characteristic Values 437 The Probability Density Function 438 Example Sine Function 439 Example Sawtooth Voltage 440 Example White Noise 440 Example Sinusoidal Signal with Noise 441 Example Narrowband Noise 441 The Autocorrelation Function 444 Example Sine 444 Example Sawtooth 444 Example Noisy Sine 445 Example White Noise 446 Example Low-Pass Noise 447 Example Bandpass Noise 449 Fourier Series 451 Sine-Cosine Spectrum 452 Amplitude-Phase Spectrum 452 Complex Fourier Series 452 The Fourier Integral 453 Energy and Power Signals 456 Example Transient Time Function 457 The Parseval Equation 459 Example Voltage Pulse 460 Fourier Transform and Power Spectral Density 462 Example Rectangular Pulse 463 Time-Limited Noise Signal 465 Example of a Time-Limited Wave Train 466 The Wiener-Khinchin Theorem 468 Cross Correlation 470 Example of Two Sine Functions 471 Example of Two White Noise Signals 472 Example of Two Bandpass Noise Signals 472.