List of Figures xxi List of Tables xlv List of Algorithms xlvii Preface xlix Lorenzo Lotto lviii Giovanni Morelli and the birth of "scientific" connoisseurship lix Overview lxi Intended audience lxii Prerequisites lxiii Acknowledgements lxiv 1 Digital imaging 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Electromagnetic radiation and light 4 1.3 Interaction of electromagnetic radiation with art materials 7 1.4 Cameras and scanners 9 1.4.1 Cameras 10 1.4.
2 Flatbed scanners 11 1.5 Parameters for image acquisition in the visible 12 Billy Pappas 13 1.5.1 Spatial resolution 15 1.5.2 Bit depth 16 1.5.3 Dynamic range and contrast 17 1.
6 Reading digital images of art on-screen 18 1.6.1 Reading a digital image of Leonardo''s La Bella Principessa 22 Leonardo da Vinci 22 1.7 Infrared photography and reflectography 25 1.8 Ultraviolet imaging 26 1.9 Multispectral and hyperspectral imaging 27 1.9.1 Hyperspectral imaging of the Archimedes Palimpsest 30 1.
10 X-radiographic imaging 32 1.11 Fluorescence imaging 35 1.12 Capture of three-dimensional surfaces of art 37 1.12.1 Raking illumination 38 1.12.2 Reflectance transformation imaging (RTI) 40 1.12.
3 Stereographic imaging 42 1.13 Optical coherence tomography (OCT) 43 1.14 Raman spectroscopic imaging and X-ray fluorescence imaging 45 1.14.1 Raman spectroscopic imaging (RSI) 45 1.14.2 X-ray fluorescence imaging (XRF) 46 1.15 Summary 47 1.
16 Bibliographical remarks 49 2 Image processing 53 2.1 Introduction 53 2.2 Pixel-based image processing 57 2.3 Region-based image processing 61 2.3.1 Linear image processing 62 2.3.2 Nonlinear region-based image processing 63 2.
3.3 Color quantization 64 2.3.4 Edge and line detection 69 2.3.5 Dilation and erosion 71 2.3.6 Skeletonization 72 2.
4 Inpainting 72 2.5 Feature extraction 74 2.5.1 Keypoint extraction 75 2.5.2 Craquelure and crazing analysis 78 2.5.3 Computational tests for counterproofing by Jan van der Heyden 81 Jan van der Heyden 83 2.
6 Segmentation 86 2.6.1 Deep nets for image segmentation 88 2.7 Geometric transformations 95 2.8 Chamfer transform and Chamfer distance 101 2.8.1 Tests for copying of Jan van Eyck''s portraits of Niccolò Albergati 103 2.9 Discrete Fourier and wavelet transforms 111 2.
9.1 Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) 111 2.9.2 Canvas support weave analysis 114 2.9.3 Discrete wavelet transform (DWT) 116 2.10 Compositing and integrating art images 118 2.10.
1 Image compositing 118 2.10.2 Superresolution 119 2.11 Image separation 123 2.12 Summary 123 2.13 Bibliographical remarks 125 3 Color analysis 129 3.1 Introduction 129 3.2 Visible-light spectra and color appearance 132 3.
3 Overview of human color vision 133 3.3.1 Properties of color descriptions 134 3.3.2 Opponent color processing and unique hues 137 3.3.3 Humanist descriptions of color 138 3.3.
4 Spatial aspects of color perception 139 Josef Albers 140 3.3.5 Color and lightness constancy and brightness perception 141 3.3.6 Quantitative descriptions and additive color mixing 141 3.3.7 Representing artists'' palettes 145 3.4 Physics of color in art materials 147 3.
4.1 Pigments and color appearance 147 3.5 Representing color arising from mixing paints 151 3.5.1 Identifying pigments in artworks based on spectra 152 3.6 Digital rejuvenation of pigment colors 154 3.6.1 Digital rejuvenation of faded artworks 157 Georges Seurat 158 3.
7 Digital cleaning of paintings 160 3.8 Summary 164 3.9 Bibliographical remarks 165 4 Brush stroke and mark analysis 171 4.1 Introduction 171 Cy Twombly 173 4.2 Analysis of printed lines and marks 175 Katsushika Hokusai 178 4.3 Inferring tools from marks 182 Sheila Waters 184 4.3.1 Analysis of brush strokes 185 4.
3.2 Segmenting and isolating brush strokes computationally 187 4.3.3 Extracting opaque marks in multiple layers 189 Vincent Willem van Gogh 193 4.3.4 Visual evidence of authorship of Pollock''s drip paintings 194 Jackson Pollock 195 4.3.5 Extracting layers of translucent brush strokes 195 4.
4 Characterizing the shapes of strokes and marks 203 4.5 Global methods for inferring sequences of marks in paintings 206 4.6 Summary 208 4.7 Bibliographical remarks 208 5 Perspective and geometric analysis 211 5.1 Introduction 211 5.2 Projective geometry 214 5.2.1 The mathematics of projection 216 5.
2.2 One-point, two-point, and three-point perspectives 222 5.2.3 Parallel or orthographic perspective in Asian art 223 5.3 Estimating the center of projection 224 5.3.1 Foreshortening and size comparisons of depicted objects 230 Piero della Francesca 231 5.3.
2 Cross-ratio analysis 232 5.3.3 Estimating the center of projection from object sizes 234 5.4 Estimating geometric accuracy in artworks 235 5.4.1 Hans Memling''s Flower Still-Life 235 Hans Memling 237 5.4.2 The carpet in Lorenzo Lotto''s Husband and Wife 238 5.
4.3 The chandelier in the Arnolfini Portrait 238 Jan van Eyck 243 5.4.4 Warping Andrea Mantegna''s Lamentation of Christ to make consistent perspective 251 5.4.5 Dewarping the murals in Sennedjem''s Tomb 252 5.4.6 Warping de Chirico''s Ariadne to make consistent perspective 255 Giorgio de Chirico 256 5.
4.7 Robert Campin and workshop''s Mérode Altarpiece 257 Robert Campin 258 5.5 Slant anamorphic art 260 Ed Ruscha (Edward Joseph Ruscha IV) 260 5.5.1 Hans Holbein''s The Ambassadors 263 Hans Holbein 263 5.6 Inferring depth from projected images 264 5.6.1 Computing a three-dimensional model from one perspective image 265 Masaccio 266 5.
6.2 Computing a three-dimensional model from two perspective images 267 5.7 Summary 271 5.8 Bibliographical remarks 272 6 Optical analysis 275 6.1 Introduction 275 6.2 Reflection and refraction 277 6.3 Plane mirrors 278 6.3.
1 Virtual image formation by plane mirrors 279 6.3.2 Depictions of plane mirrors in art 281 6.3.3 Diego Velázquez''s Las Meninas 283 Diego Velázquez 284 6.4 Convex spherical mirrors 288 6.4.1 Virtual image formation by convex spherical mirrors 290 6.
4.2 Jan van Eyck''s Portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and his Wife 292 6.4.3 Claude glass 297 6.4.4 Parmigianino''s Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror 298 Parmigianino (Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola) 298 6.4.5 Hans Memling''s Virgin and Child and Maarten van Nieuwenhove 304 6.
4.6 Dewarping images in generalized cylindrical mirrors 308 6.5 Conical and cylindrical mirrors and anamorphic art 312 6.5.1 Conical mirror anamorphic art 313 6.5.2 Cylindrical mirror anamorphic art 317 6.6 Concave spherical mirrors 318 6.
6.1 Virtual image formation by concave mirrors 320 6.6.2 Real image formation by concave mirrors 322 6.7 Converging lenses 323 6.7.1 Virtual image formation by converging lenses 325 6.7.
2 Real image formation by convex lenses 327 6.8 Camera lucida and camera obscura 328 6.8.1 Camera lucida 328 6.8.2 Camera obscura 331 6.8.3 Depth of field, depth of focus, and blur spots 333 6.
9 Optical projections and the creation of art 336 6.9.1 Jan van Eyck''s Portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and his wife 337 6.9.2 Caravaggio''s Supper at Emmaus 342 6.9.3 Lorenzo Lotto''s Husband and Wife 345 6.9.
4 Johannes Vermeer''s Lady at the Virginals with a Gentleman 349 Johannes Vermeer 349 6.9.5 Canaletto''s Piazza San Marco 363 Canaletto (Giovanni Antonio Canal) 364 6.9.6 Photorealists 364 Philip Barlow 366 6.10 Refraction and nonimaging optics in art 366 6.10.1 ?Leonardo''s Salvator Mundi 366 6.
11 Summary 371 6.12 Bibliographical remarks 372 7 Lighting analysis 377 7.1 Introduction 377 7.2 Basic shadows 381 7.2.1 General classes of lighting analysis methods 383 7.3 Cast-shadow analysis 383 7.3.
1 Illumination from two or more point-sources 388 7.3.2 Cast-shadow analysis under geometric constraints 388 7.4 Lighting information from highlights 389 7.4.1 Illumination direction from highlights on simple estimated shapes 393 7.5 The optics of diffuse reflections 394 7.6 Inferring illumination from plane surfaces 396 Georges de la Tour 398 7.
7 Interreflection 400 7.8 Occluding-contour algorithms 401 7.8.1 Single-point occluding-contour algorithm 403 7.8.2 General occluding-contour algorithm 405 Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio) 407 7.8.3 Lightfield occluding-contour algorithm 408 Garth Herrick 409 7.
8.4 Theory of the lightfield occluding-contour algorithm 410 7.8.5 Application of the lightfield occluding-contour algorithm 415 7.9 Computer graphics for the analysis of lighting 418 7.9.1 Georges de la Tour''s Christ in the Carpenter''s Studio (model) 419 7.9.
2 Johannes Vermeer''s Girl with a Pearl Earring 421 7.9.3 René Magritte''s The Menaced Assassin 422 7.9.4 Bidirect.