Preface xix Acknowledgments xxi Symbols, Signs, and Abbreviations xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Historical Background 3 1.2 Cryogenic Applications 5 References 9 2 Basics of Process Design 11 2.1 Design Procedure 12 2.2 Process Simulators and Fluid Properties 15 2.3 Optimization 15 2.4 Control Concept 17 References 18 3 Cryogenic Fluids 19 3.1 Air 19 3.

2 Nitrogen 22 3.3 Oxygen 23 3.4 Argon 24 3.5 Methane 25 3.6 Neon 26 3.7 Hydrogen 27 3.8 Helium 31 3.9 Temperature-Enthalpy Diagram 34 3.

10 Temperature-Entropy Diagram 36 References 38 4 Reversibility Concept 39 4.1 Reversibility and Irreversibility 39 4.1.1 Irreversibility 39 4.1.2 Reversibility 40 4.2 Carnot Engine 40 4.3 Reversible Process as Benchmark 42 4.

4 Entropy 42 4.5 Exergy Concept 45 4.6 Application of Exergy Concept for Thermodynamic Analysis, Exergy Loss 49 5 Unit Operations for Cryogenic Processes 51 5.1 Isenthalpic Expansion 51 5.2 Expansion in Expander 62 5.3 Heat Exchanger 72 5.4 Single Adiabatic Compression Stage 81 5.5 Multi-Stage Compression, Isothermal Compression 86 References 94 6 Key Hardware Components 95 6.

1 Thermal Insulation/Coldbox 95 6.2 Heat Exchanger 101 6.3 Expanders 115 6.4 Expansion Valve 136 6.5 Compressors 136 References 167 7 Cryogenic Refrigeration 169 7.1 Principle of Cryogenic Refrigeration 172 7.2 Joule-Thomson Process (Nitrogen Joule-Thomson Process) 181 7.3 Brayton Process 213 7.

4 Claude Process 236 7.5 Mixed-Fluid Joule-Thomson Process 279 7.6 Cryogenic Refrigeration Processes, Life Cycle 330 References 331 8 Liquefaction of Cryogenic Gases 333 8.1 Thermodynamic Basics for Liquefaction 333 8.2 Nitrogen Liquefaction 355 8.3 Helium Liquefaction 374 8.4 Natural Gas Liquefaction 400 References 438 9 Supplements 439 9.1 Supplements for Cryogenic Refrigeration 439 9.

2 Supplements for Liquefaction 445 References 487 Index 489.