About the Author xv Foreword xvi A Memorandum from the Author xvii Acknowledgements xxiv 1 Introduction to Research Methods 1 1.1 What is Research? 1 1.1.1 Definition 1 1.2 Glossary of Research Terms 2 1.3 Ontology 3 1.3.1 Subjectivism 3 1.
3.2 Relativism 3 1.3.3 Objectivism 3 1.4 Epistemology 4 1.4.1 The Theory of Knowledge 4 1.5 Generic Stages of the Research Process 5 1.
5.1 The Hollins Martin 16- Step Model to Writing a Research Proposal 6 1.6 Triangulation 18 1.6.1 A Scientific Summary of Mixed Methods Research Follows 18 1.7 Introduction to Research Methods Chapter Summary 34 1.7.1 Chapter Conclusion 34 1.
8 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 34 Answers to Chapter 1 SAQs 36 2 Inductive Versus Deductive Approaches 37 2.1 Introduction to Inductive Versus Deductive Approaches 37 2.2 More About the (Quantitative) Deductive Approach 38 2.3 More About the (Qualitative) Inductive Approach 39 2.4 The Qualitative Versus Quantitative Debate 40 2.5 The Difference(s) Between Qualitative and Quantitative Data 41 2.5.1 All Qualitative Data can be Coded Quantitatively 41 2.
5.2 All Quantitative Data is Based on Qualitative Judgements 42 2.6 Qualitative and Quantitative Assumptions 43 2.6.1 Chapter Conclusion 43 2.7 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQ) 44 Answers to Chapter 2 SAQs 44 3 Literature Searching and How to Critique a Research Paper 45 3.1 Define the Term Literature Review 45 3.2 Outline the Purpose of Research 45 3.
3 What is a Literature Review? 46 3.4 What is the Purpose of a Literature Review? 46 3.5 What Should a Literature Review Consist of? 46 3.5.1 Introduction 46 3.5.2 Body 47 3.5.
3 Conclusion 48 3.6 Steps Involved in Writing a Literature Review 48 3.7 Outline the Four Stages of Developing a Literature Review 51 3.7.1 Setting the Topic in Context 52 3.7.2 Looking at Information Sources e.g.
Search Tools 52 3.7.3 What Databases you are Going to Search 53 3.7.4 Identifying Relevant Studies using Predecided Search Terms 53 3.7.5 Using Information Sources 53 3.7.
6 Results 54 3.7.7 Validation 55 3.7.8 Use of Appraisal Tools 55 3.7.9 The Author 56 3.7.
10 Date of Publication 56 3.7.11 Edition or Revision 56 3.7.12 Publisher 56 3.7.13 Critiquing Models may be used to Analyse Primary Papers 57 Box 3.1 Example of a Critiquing Model 57 3.
7.14 Positioning of the Literature Review 58 3.7.15 Writing the Literature Review 58 3.8 What is a Research Critique? 62 3.9 Stages Involved in Critical Reading of Research Articles 62 3.10 Research Critiquing Model 63 3.11 Systematic Reviews 65 3.
11.1 Types of Systematic Review 66 3.12 The Hollins Martin Research Critiquing Tool 66 3.13 Meta- Analysis 69 3.13.1 Advantages of Meta- Analysis 69 3.13.2 Steps Involved in a Meta- Analysis 70 3.
13.3 Chapter Conclusion 71 3.14 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 71 Answers to Chapter 3 SAQs 72 4 Stating the Objectives Aim(s) Research Question(s) Sub-Question(s) Hypotheses and Null Hypotheses of the Proposed Research Study 73 4.1 What is an Objective? 74 4.2 What is an Aim? 75 4.3 What is a Research Question? 75 4.3.1 Refining a Broad Topic into a Specific Researchable Question 75 4.
4 What is a Hypothesis? 78 4.5 What is a Null Hypothesis? 79 4.6 Relationship Between the Null Hypothesis and the Thesis Statement 81 4.7 The Methods Section of the Research Proposal Will Follow 82 4.7.1 Chapter Conclusion 85 4.8 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 86 Answers to Chapter 4 SAQs 86 5 Choosing an Appropriate Research Method (Recipe) to Answer the Question 87 5.1 Selecting an Appropriate Research Method (Recipe) to Answer Your Research Question 87 5.
2 Choosing a Quantitative Method 88 5.3 Choosing a Qualitative Method 88 5.4 Selecting Which Research Method (Recipe) to Use 89 5.4.1 Considering Using a Quantitative Method (Recipe) 90 5.4.2 Features Associated with the Quantitative Approach 90 5.5 Descriptive Research Method 92 5.
5.1 Epidemiology 92 5.5.2 Correlations 93 5.6 Experimental Research Method 94 5.6.1 Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) 95 5.6.
2 Quasi- Experimental Research Method 95 Box 5.1 An Example of a Quasi- Experimental Method 96 5.7 Survey Research Method 96 5.7.1 Quantitative Survey Research Method 97 5.7.2 Qualitative Survey Research Method 99 5.8 Action Research Method 101 5.
9 Clinical Audit Research Method 103 5.9.1 Cycle of Stages Involved in Clinical Audit Research Method 103 Box 5.2 A Notorious Clinical Audit Carried Out by Florence Nightingale 103 5.9.2 Standard- Based Audit Method 104 5.9.3 Critical Incident Audit Method 105 5.
10 Grounded Theory Research Method 106 5.10.1 Writing a Methodology for Grounded Theory 108 5.10.2 Example Philosophy Underpinning Grounded Theory Research Method 108 5.11 Phenomenology Research Method 110 5.11.1 Writing a Methodology for Phenomenology 111 5.
11.2 Example Philosophy Underpinning Phenomenology Research Method Husserl 111 5.11.3 Heidegger 111 5.11.4 Intentionality 112 5.11.5 Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) 112 5.
12 Ethnography Research Method 113 5.12.1 Features of Ethnographic Research Method 114 5.12.2 Example Philosophy Underpinning Ethnography Research Method 114 5.12.3 Questions to Help you Evaluate Your Recipe 115 5.13 Case Study Research Method 115 5.
13.1 Case Selection 116 5.13.2 Postscript 117 5.14 Triangulation 117 5.15 A Summary of How Papers are Written 118 5.15.1 Chapter Conclusion 118 5.
16 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 120 Answers to Chapter 5 SAQs 121 6 Accessing Populations of Participants and Sampling Them 122 6.1 Identifying the Appropriate Participants to Answer your Research Question(s) 122 6.2 What is a Population? 123 6.3 What is a Sample? 123 6.4 Stages of the Sampling Process 124 6.4.1 (Stage 1) Define the Population of Interest 124 6.4.
2 (Stage 2) Specify a Set of Participants (or Items) that are Obtainable to Investigate 125 6.4.3 (Stage 3) Specify a Sampling Method for Selecting Participants from the Population 126 6.4.4 (Stage 4) Determine the Sample Size 129 6.4.5 (Stage 5) Write the Sampling Plan 130 6.4.
6 (Stage 6) Practical Sampling and Data Collection Guidance 132 6.5 Summary of the Sampling Process 132 6.5.1 Chapter Conclusion 132 6.6 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 133 Answers to Chapter 6 SAQs 134 7 Data Collection Methods 135 7.1 Differences Between Primary and Secondary Data 135 7.2 Data Collection Methods and Tools 135 7.3 Guidelines for Data Collection Processes 136 7.
4 Questionnaires 137 7.4.1 What are Reliability and Validity? 140 7.4.2 What is Reliability? 140 7.4.3 Test-Retest 141 7.4.
4 Parallel Form 142 7.4.5 Split Half 143 7.4.6 What is Validity? 143 7.4.7 Face Validity 143 7.4.
8 Content Validity 144 7.4.9 Criterion Validity 144 7.5 Measurement 145 7.6 Interviews 146 7.6.1 Unstructured Interview 146 7.6.
2 Semi- Structured Interview 146 7.6.3 Structured Interview 146 7.6.4 Focus Group Interviews 147 7.6.5 Steps Involved in Running a Focus Group 147 7.7 Observations 149 7.
7.1 Roles Taken During Observational Data Collection 149 7.8 Summary of Data Collection Chapter 150 7.9 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 150 Answers to Chapter 7 SAQs 151 8 Analyzing Qualitative Data 152 8.1 Introduction to Qualitative Data Analysis 152 8.2 Basic Processes of Qualitative Data Analysis 153 8.3 Coding the Data 154 8.3.
1 The Coding Process 154 8.3.2 Defining Codes 155 8.4 Specific Analytic Strategies 156 8.4.1 Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) 157 8.4.2 Grounded Theory Constant Comparative Analysis 157 8.
4.3 Ethnographic Analysis 158 8.4.4 Narrative and Discourse Analysis 158 8.5 Cognitive Processes Involved in Qualitative Data Analysis 158 8.6 Summary of Analyzing Qualitative Data Chapter 160 8.7 Self- Assessment Questions (SAQs) 161 Answers to Chapter 8 SAQs 162 9 Analyzing Quantitative Research 163 9.1 Introduction to Quantitative Data Analysis 163 9.
2 What the Term Statistics Means? 163 9.3 What are Descriptive Statistics? 164 9.3.1 Measures of Central Tendency 165 9.3.2 Measures of Dispersion 166 9.4 Distribution of Data 166 Box 9.1 How to Calculate the Range IQR and the Standard Deviation for the Example of Data Presented in Activity 9.
1 167 9.4.1 The Normal Distribution 167 9.4.2 Parametric Tests 167 9.4.3 Skewness and its Relationship to Central Tendency 169 9.4.
4 Non- Parametric Tests 170 9.5 What are Inferential Statistics? 171 9.6 Types of Quantitative Data Produced 171 9.6.1 Nominal Data 172 9.6.2 Ordinal Data 172 9.6.
3 Interval Data 172 9.6.4 Ratio Data 172 9.7 Calculating Probability 172 9.7.1 The Relationship of Probability to.