Preface Acknowledgements Notes on Authors 1 Introduction: Regulating Space Pollution by Non-state Actors (nsas) under International Law 1 Setting the Parameters for the Study of nsaAccountability 2 Defining the Key Terms 3 The Escalating Threat of nsaSpace Pollution 4 Space Law Has Been Designed State-entrically 4.1 Conventional Instruments 4.2 Soft Law Instruments 4.3 Conclusion on the State-Centric Formation of International Space Law 5 The Limited Scholarly Attention Given to Regulating nsaSpace Pollution 5.1 Conceptual Underpinnings of the Increasing Recognition of nsas as Subjects and Objects of International Law 5.2 The Need for Scholarly Analysis of nsa Responsibility for Space Pollution 2 Gateway Considerations for the Application of International Law to Space Pollution 1 The Quest to Discern a Prohibition of Space Pollution 1.1 Does International Space Law Prohibit Space Pollution? 1.2 Does International Environmental Law Prohibit Space Pollution? 1.

2.1 No-Harm Principle 1.2.2 Precautionary Principle 1.2.3 Principle of Sustainable Development 1.2.4 Principle of Intergenerational Equity 1.

2.5 Principle of Common-but-Differentiated Responsibilities 1.2.6 Polluter-Pays Principle 1.2.7 The Principle of Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources 1.2.8 Other Bases under International Environmental Law to Prohibit Space Pollution 1.

2.9 Conclusion on International Environmental Law 1.3 The Relevance of the Human Right to a Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment 2 Conclusion regarding a Prohibition of Space Pollution 3 The Classical Approach: Regulating nsa Space Pollution via State Responsibility 1 The Outer Space Treaty and nsas: Key Provisions 1.1 Article ix 1.2 Article vi 1.3 Article vii 1.4 Article viii 2 Problems Arising from the Exclusive Focus on States to Ensure nsaAccountability 4 The New Horizon: Direct nsa Accountability under International Law for Space Pollution 1 Two Case Studies Exemplifying the New Threat Emanating from nsas 1.1 Profit-Driven nsas 1.

2 Politically-Motivated Violent nsas 2 The Direct Application of International Law to nsas regarding Space Pollution 2.1 Space Law 2.2 International Criminal Law 2.3 International Humanitarian Law 2.4 International Human Rights Law 2.5 International Environmental Law 2.6 Private International Law 2.7 Conclusion on Alternative International Law Domains 3 Operationalizing nsaAccountability for Space Pollution: Fora in Which to Proceed against nsas under International Law 3.

1 International Courts and Institutions 3.2 Domestic Courts Acting under Universal Jurisdiction 3.3 Domestic Courts Acting under Extra-Territorial Jurisdiction 5 Domestic and Regional Practice: Legislation, Enforcement Frameworks, and Jurisprudence 1 Oceanic States 1.1 Australia 1.2 New Zealand 2 European States 2.1 The European Space Agency 2.1.1 The European Union 2.

1.2 France 2.1.3 Germany 2.1.4 Austria 2.1.5 Slovenia 2.

1.6 Luxembourg 2.1.7 Belgium 2.1.8 Finland 2.1.9 Denmark 2.

1.10 Italy 2.1.11 The Netherlands 2.1.12 Norway 2.1.13 Portugal 2.

1.14 Sweden 2.1.15 United Kingdom 2.1.16 Greece 3 North American States 3.1 United States of America 3.2 Canada 4 Eastern European (Non-EU) and Central Eurasian States 4.

1 The Russian Federation 4.2 Kazakhstan 4.3 Ukraine 4.4 Armenia 5 South American States 5.1 Brazil 5.2 Costa Rica 5.3 Peru 6 Asian States 6.1 Japan 6.

2 Republic of Korea 6.3 China 6.4 India 6.5 Indonesia 7 Middle Eastern States 7.1 United Arab Emirates 8 African States 8.1 South Africa 8.2 Kenya 8.3 Nigeria 9 Additional States with Regulatory Mechanisms Concerning Space Activities 10 International Law Association Model Law for Domestic Systems 11 Conclusions on Domestic and Regional Practice 6 Lex ferenda : Normative Options to Redress Future nsa Space Pollution 1 Retrenchment 2 Re-interpretation 3 Reform 4 Conclusions regarding Options to Redress the Gap in Space Law Regarding nsas 5 Insights from the Avenues for Redress regarding the Nature of International Law 7 Overall Conclusions: An Emerging Threat that Tests the Underpinnings of International Law Annex: Proposed New Protocol to the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 Addressing nsa Responsibility for Space Pollution Bibliography Index.