Preface xi Chapter 1 Introduction to Aluminum (Aluminium) 1 Introduction 1 Aluminum as a Design Material 7 Environmental and Hygienic 9 History of the Metal 14 The Origins of Modern Production 16 Aluminum in Art 22 Production Process Today 25 Aluminum versus Aluminium 29 Comparisons Between Architectural Metals 30 Chapter 2 Aluminum Alloys 33 Choosing the Correct Alloy 35 The Initial Mill Casting 35 Commercial Pure Aluminum Alloy A91xxx 38 Alloy Designation System 39 Chapter 3 Surface Finishing 95 The Mill Finish Surface 96 Directional Finishes 102 Non-Directional Finishes 102 Mirror Finish 104 Bright Dipping and Electropolishing 109 Electropolishing Aluminum 111 Anodizing 111 History of Anodizing 115 Anodizing Process 116 The Anodized Surface Layer 119 Variations in the Anodized Coating 126 Anodizing Quality 126 Defects That Can Appear After Anodizing 127 Effects of Lubricants 127 Structural Streaks 128 Managing Expectations of the Anodized Surface 128 Coloring by Means of Anodizing 130 Design Considerations 144 Chapter 4 The Aluminum Surface Finish: Meeting Expectations 161 The Natural Finish 162 The Anodic Finish 167 The Point of Range Samples 171 Color 173 Flatness 178 Cleaning the Surface Over Time 182 Chapter 5 Designing with the Available Forms of Aluminum 187 Basic Forms of Aluminum 189 It Begins at the Aluminum Mill: The Heat 190 Sheet and Plate 190 Supply Constraints 191 Plate 193 Coil and Sheet 197 Foil 200 Clad Aluminum: Alclad 202 Extrusion 203 Extrusion Process 207 Designing the Shape 208 Cross-Section Design Criteria 208 Extrusion Dies 211 Aluminum Pipe and Tube 213 Aluminum Rod and Bar 215 Aluminum Structural Shapes: Angles, Channels, Tees, and I-Beam Shapes 215 Aluminum Wire 219 Aluminum Wire Mesh 219 Aluminum Expanded Metal 220 Perforated Aluminum and Embossed Aluminum 222 Cast Forms 224 Sand Casting 227 Permanent Mold Casting 228 Die Casting 228 Aluminum Foam 229 Chapter 6 Fabrication 231 Challenges with Aluminum Fabrication 233 Handling and Storage 235 Forming 254 Fastening 269 Soldering and Brazing 271 Welding 272 Casting 279 Rapid Prototype 283 Chapter 7 Corrosion Characteristics 285 Natural Weathering: Influences on Performance 287 Marine Environment 289 Urban Environment in the South 290 Urban Environment in the North 291 Rural Environment 292 Corrosion of Aluminum Surfaces 293 Water Staining 310 Fingerprinting 311 Expectations of Various Environmental Exposures 311 Cleaning 313 Protective Measures 314 Paint Coatings 315 Storage and Handling 322 Chapter 8 Coping with the Unexpected 325 Introduction 325 The Principal of Life Cycle 326 Mill Constraints 327 Potential Issues with Sheet and Plate 329 Dents and Scratches in Anodized and Painted Aluminum 332 Graffiti 333 Flatness 334 Stiffener Show-through 339 Issues Encountered with Casting Aluminum 340 Issues Encountered with Aluminum Extrusions 341 Crazing of the Surface 344 Causes of Tonal Differences 347 Range Samples 348 Welding of Anodized Assemblies 350 Spalling 351 Water Stains 351 Inclusions Visible After Polishing Plate 352 Appendix A Valuable Information and Specifications for Aluminum in Art and Architecture 353 Appendix B Tempers on Wrought Sheet, Extrusion, and Plate for Alloys Considered for Use in Art and Architecture 355 Appendix C European Specifications Relevant to Art and Architecture 357 Appendix D Alloy Designations for Wrought Aluminum Alloys Used in Art and Architecture 361 Further Reading 363 Index 365.