Preface Acknowledgements Abbreviations List of Illustartions Sources and Historiography 1.1 Historiography: The Discovery of Armenian Cilicia 1.2 Sources 1.2.1 The Armenian Sources 1.2.2 The Syrian Sources 1.2.

3 The Greek Sources 1.2.4 The Latin and Frankish Sources 1.2.5 The Arabic Sources 1.3 Archaeological Research 2 Historical Outline of Cilicia (969-1375) 2.1 The Geography of the Armenian Kingdom 2.1.

1 Cilicia Trachea (or Rough Cilicia) 2.1.2 Cilicia Pedias 2.1.3 Rubenid and Hetumid Region in the Taurus Mountains 2.1.4 Amanus Region 2.2 Armenian Settlement (969-1097) 2.

2.1 From the Caucasus to the Mediterranean Sea 2.2.2 The Establishment of Armenian Baronies in the Eastern Mediterranean Coastlands 2.2.3 The Origin of the Hetumids and Rubenids in Cilicia 2.3 Norman Cilicia (1097-1112) 2.3.

1 The Arrival of the First Crusade in Cilicia (August-September 1097) 2.3.2 A Multitude of Rulers: Hetumids, Rubenids, Franks, and Seljuks in the Cilician Plain (September-October 1097) 2.3.3 Tancred, Norman Master of Cilicia (1097-1099) 2.3.4 The Second Norman Conquest of Cilicia and the Battle of Harran (1101-1104) 2.3.

5 The Expansion of the Principality of Antioch and the Treaty of Devol (1106-1112) 2.4 Towards an Armenian Kingdom (1112-1198) 2.4.1 Komnenian Intervention (1081-1143) 2.4.2 The Rise of the Rubenids (1143-1188) 2.4.3 From Baron to King 2.

5 The Armenian Kingdom (1198-1375) 2.5.1 Levon and the Role of the Military Orders 2.5.2 Hetum I(r. 1226-1269) 2.5.3 From the Rise of the Mamluks to the Fall of the Armenian Kingdom (1269-1375) 3 Fortifications and Geography 3.

1 Fortifications in their Historical Landscape 3.1.1 Cilicia: Crossroads between the West and East 3.1.2 Settlement Patterns in Byzantine Cilicia (450-650) 3.1.3 Cilicia on the Islamic-Byzantine frontier: The Construction of the Frontier or al-thughur 3.1.

4 Cilicia on the Islamic-Byzantine Frontier: A Process of Incastellamento or Kastroktisia 3.1.4.1 Byzantine Skirmishing Tactics in the Taurus Region (650-950) 3.1.4.2 Process of Incastellamento or Kastroktisia 3.1.

4.3 Phrouria, Aplèkta, Kastra, and Kataphygia 3.1.4.4 Arab Occupation of the Cilician Plain and Amanus Mountains (650-950) 3.1.4.5 Byzantine Re-conquest and Construction of Fortifications 3.

2Strategy and the Spatial Distribution of Fortifications 3.2.1 General Principles 3.2.2 A Google Earth Analysis 3.2.2.1 The Spatial Distribution of Fortifications 3.

2.2.2 Newly Built Constructions (1075-1350) 3.2.2.3 Refortification and Occupation 3.2.3 Land Routes, Rivers and Topography as Variables for the Distribution of Fortifications 3.

2.3.1 Cilicia Trachea 3.2.3.2 Hetumid Region 3.2.3.

3 Cilicia Pedias 3.2.3.4 Rubenid Region 3.2.3.5 Amanus 3.2.

4 The Idea of Intervisibility 3.3 Towards a More Dyanamic Model 3.3.1 Cities 3.3.1.1 The Hetumid and Rubenid Barony, Two Spheres of Influence, 1075-1198 3.3.

1.2 The Armenian Kingdom, Tarsus and Sis (1198-1266) 3.3.1.3 Fortifications and the Mamluk Threat (1266-1375) 3.3.1.4 The Armenian Kingdom, Zones of Concentration (1198-1375) 3.

3.1.5 The Role of the Monasteries 4 The Form and Functions of the Armenian Fortifications in Cilicia 4.1 Byzantine, Arab and Crusader Inheritance 4.1.1 The Byzantine Inheritance 4.1.2 The Arab Inheritance 4.

1.3 The Crusader Inheritance 4.1.3.1 Principality of Antioch 4.1.3.2 Hospitallers 4.

1.3.3 Teutonic Knights 4.1.3.4 Templars 4.2 Typology of Surviving Armenian Fortifications 4.2.

1 Raisons d''être and Functions 4.2.2 A Typology for Medieval Fortifications in Cilicia 4.2.2.1 Watch Posts 4.2.2.

2 Quadrangular Enclosure Castle with Projecting Towers (Forts, Quadriburgia, Castella, or Castra) 4.2.2.3 Tower Keeps/Hall Houses 4.2.2.4 Keep Tower and Bailey 4.2.

2.5 Castle without Enclosure 4.2.2.6 Enclosure Castle 4.2.2.7 Fortress/Citadel 4.

2.2.8 Sea Castle 4.2.3 Conclusion 4.3 Rural Settlements with Fortifications 4.3.1 Introduction 4.

3.2 Catalogue of Settlements 4.3.2.1 Aladag 4.3.2.2 Andil 4.

3.2.3 Babaoglan 4.3.2.4 Çem 4.3.2.

5 Findikpinar 4.3.2.6 Oglan (near Kizlar) 4.3.2.7 Sinap (near Lampron) 4.3.

2.8 Vahga 4.3.3 Conclusion 5 The Characteristics of Armenian Military Architecture 5.1 The Influence of Byzantine Military Architecture 5.1.1 Siting and Lay-out of Byzantine Fortifications 5.1.

2 Byzantine Masonry 5.1.3 Byzantine Mural Towers 5.2 Armenian Military Architecture 5.2.1 Armenian Masonry 5.2.2 Theoretical Background 5.

2.3 A Model for Armenian Masonry 5.2.4 Gateways 5.2.5 Posterns 5.2.6 Design of Gateways 5.

2.7 Other Components of Armenian Fortifications 5.2.7.1 Curtain Walls 5.2.7.2 Battlements, Hoardings (bretêche/brattices), and Slit-Machicolation 5.

2.7.3 Arrow-Slits 5.2.7.4 Round -and D-Shaped Towers 5.3 Conclusion 6 General Conclusion Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Bibliography Primary Sources Secondary Sources.