About the Author Preface xv 1 History and Terminology 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Historical Perspectives 8 1.2.1 Pre- Christian Era Use of Heavy Oil and Bitumen 8 1.2.2 Post- Christian Era Use of Heavy Oil and Bitumen 14 1.3 Definitions and Terminology 15 1.

3.1 Nonviscous Feedstocks 17 1.3.1.1 Crude Oil 17 1.3.1.2 Opportunity Crude Oil 21 1.

3.1.3 High- Acid Crude Oil 25 1.3.1.4 Foamy Oil 26 1.3.2 Viscous Feedstocks 27 1.

3.2.1 Gas Oil 29 1.3.2.2 Heavy Crude Oil 30 1.3.2.

3 Extra Heavy Crude Oil 33 1.3.2.4 Tar Sand Bitumen 36 1.3.2.5 Residuum 41 1.3.

2.6 Asphalt 45 1.3.2.7 Tar and Pitch 49 1.3.2.8 Sludge 50 1.

4 Classification 51 1.5 Feedstock Evaluation 53 1.6 Modern Analytical Perspectives 56 References 58 2 Sampling and Measurement 63 2.1 Introduction 63 2.2 Sampling 64 2.2.1 Sampling Protocol 70 2.2.

1.1 Sampling Semi- volatile and Nonvolatile Compounds 71 2.2.1.2 Solids 75 2.2.1.3 Extract Concentration 77 2.

2.1.4 Sample Cleanup 80 2.2.2 Representative Sample 80 2.2.3 Sampling Error 82 2.3 Measurement 82 2.

4 Method Validation 85 2.4.1 Requirements 87 2.4.2 Method Detection Limit 87 2.4.3 Accuracy 88 2.4.

4 Precision 89 2.5 Quality Control and Quality Assurance 90 2.5.1 Quality Control 90 2.5.2 Quality Assurance 92 2.6 Assay and Specifications 93 2.6.

1 Assay 95 2.6.2 Specifications 99 2.6.3 Metallic Constituents 100 2.6.4 Water Content 101 2.7 Environmental Issues 102 References 104 3 Chemical Composition 109 3.

1 Introduction 109 3.2 Elemental Composition 114 3.3 Chemical Composition 120 3.3.1 Hydrocarbon Constituents 122 3.3.1.1 Paraffin Hydrocarbon Derivatives 123 3.

3.1.2 Cycloparaffin Hydrocarbon Derivatives 124 3.3.1.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbon Derivatives 124 3.3.1.

4 Unsaturated Hydrocarbon Derivatives 124 3.3.2 Non- hydrocarbon Constituents 125 3.3.2.1 Sulfur Compounds 125 3.3.2.

2 Nitrogen Compounds 126 3.3.2.3 Oxygen Compounds 126 3.3.3 Metallic Constituents 127 3.3.4 Porphyrins 128 3.

4 Chemical Composition by Distillation 131 3.4.1 Vacuum Gas Oil 135 3.4.2 Vacuum Residua 136 3.5 Chemical Composition by Spectroscopy 137 3.5.1 Infrared Spectroscopy 138 3.

5.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 138 3.5.3 Mass Spectrometry 139 3.5.4 Other Techniques 141 References 142 4 Fractional Composition 149 4.1 Introduction 149 4.2 Distillation 151 4.

3 Solvent Treatment 152 4.3.1 Asphaltene Separation 156 4.3.1.1 Influence of Solvent Type 158 4.3.1.

2 Influence of the Degree of Dilution 160 4.3.1.3 Influence of Temperature 160 4.3.1.4 Influence of Contact Time 161 4.3.

2 Fractionation 161 4.3.3 Carbenes and Carboids 163 4.4 Adsorption 164 4.4.1 Chemical Factors 165 4.4.2 Fractionation Methods 166 4.

4.2.1 General Methods 166 4.4.2.2 ASTM Methods 172 4.5 Chemical Methods 173 4.5.

1 Acid Treatment 173 4.5.2 Molecular Complex Formation 174 4.5.2.1 Urea Adduction 174 4.5.2.

2 Thiourea Adduction 176 4.5.2.3 Adduct Composition 176 4.5.2.4 Adduct Structure 176 4.5.

2.5 Adduct Properties 178 4.6 The Asphaltene Fraction 179 4.7 Carbenes and Carboids 180 4.8 Use of the Data 182 References 185 5 Chemical Properties 191 5.1 Introduction 191 5.2 Acid Number 193 5.3 Elemental Analysis and Metals 197 5.

4 Emulsion Formation 201 5.5 Evaporation 202 5.6 Flash Point and Fire Point 203 5.7 Functional Group Analysis 204 5.8 Halogenation 208 5.9 Hydrogenation 210 5.10 Oxidation 216 5.11 Thermal Methods 219 5.

12 Miscellaneous Methods 222 References 223 6 Physical Properties, Electrical Properties, and Optical Properties 229 6.1 Introduction 229 6.2 Physical Properties 233 6.2.1 Adhesion 234 6.2.2 Density, Specific Gravity, and API Gravity 235 6.2.

3 Surface and Interfacial Tension 238 6.2.4 Viscosity 239 6.3 Electrical Properties 243 6.3.1 Conductivity 243 6.3.2 Dielectric Constant 244 6.

3.3 Dielectric Strength 244 6.3.4 Dielectric Loss and Power Factor 245 6.3.5 Static Electrification 246 6.4 Optical Properties 246 6.4.

1 Optical Activity 248 6.4.2 Refractive Index 249 References 250 7 Thermal Properties 255 7.1 Introduction 255 7.2 Ash Production 256 7.3 Carbon Residue 258 7.4 Critical Properties 260 7.5 Enthalpy 262 7.

6 Heat of Combustion 263 7.7 Latent Heat 264 7.8 Liquefaction and Solidification 265 7.9 Pour Point 267 7.10 Pressure-Volume-Temperature Relationships 267 7.11 Softening Point 269 7.12 Specific Heat 269 7.13 Thermal Conductivity 271 7.

14 Volatility 272 References 278 8 Chromatographic Properties 283 8.1 Introduction 283 8.2 Adsorption Chromatography 286 8.3 Gas Chromatography 291 8.4 Gel Permeation Chromatography 298 8.5 High- Performance Liquid Chromatography 300 8.6 Ion Exchange Chromatography 303 8.7 Simulated Distillation 305 8.

8 Supercritical Fluid Chromatography 307 8.9 Thin Layer Chromatography 309 References 311 9 Structural Group Analysis 317 9.1 Introduction 317 9.2 Physical Property Methods 320 9.2.1 Density Method 321 9.2.2 Density-Temperature Coefficient Method 321 9.

2.3 Direct Method 322 9.2.4 Dispersion-Refraction Method 323 9.2.5 Molecular Weight- Refractive Index Method 324 9.2.6 n-d-M Method 325 9.

2.7 Waterman Ring Analysis 325 9.2.8 Miscellaneous Methods 327 9.3 Spectroscopic Methods 328 9.3.1 Electron Spin Resonance 329 9.3.

2 Infrared Spectroscopy 329 9.3.3 Mass Spectrometry 333 9.3.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 339 9.3.5 Ultraviolet Spectroscopy 345 9.3.

6 X- ray Diffraction 345 9.4 Heteroatom Systems 347 9.4.1 Nitrogen 347 9.4.2 Oxygen 348 9.4.3 Sulfur 348 9.

4.4 Metals 349 9.5 Miscellaneous Methods 349 References 350 10 Molecular Weight Determination 357 10.1 Introduction 357 10.2 Methods for Molecular Weight Measurement 360 10.2.1 Vapor Pressure Osmometry 361 10.2.

2 Freezing Point Depression 365 10.2.3 Boiling Point Elevation 366 10.2.4 Size Exclusion Chromatography 367 10.2.5 Mass Spectrometry 369 10.2.

6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 370 10.3 Molecular Weights of Volatile Fractions 370 10.4 Molecular Weights of Nonvolatile Fractions 371 10.4.1 Resins 372 10.4.2 Asphaltenes 372 10.4.

3 Carbenes and Carboids 378 References 379 11 Instability and Incompatibility 383 11.1 Introduction 383 11.2 Occurrence of Instability and Incompatibility 389 11.3 Factors Influencing Instability and Incompatibility 394 11.3.1 Acidity 395 11.3.2 Asphaltene Content 395 11.

3.3 Density/Specific Gravity 398 11.3.4 Elemental Analysis 398 11.3.5 Metals Content 399 11.3.6 Pour Point 400 11.

3.7 Viscosity 400 11.3.8 Volatility 400 11.3.9 Water Content, Salt Content, Bottom Sediment and Water (BS&W) 402 11.4 Determination of Instability and Incompatibility 403 References 406 12 Use of the Data 413 12.1 Introduction 413 12.

2 Use of the Data 414 12.3 Process Analysis and Feedstock Mapping 416 12.3.1 Property Predictions 418 12.3.2 Predicting Separations 418 12.3.3 Process Predictability 419 12.

4 Environmental Aspects of Processing 419 12.4.1 Gaseous Emissions 422 12.4.2 Liquid Effluents 428 12.4.3 Solid Effluents 430 12.5 Analytical Methods for Environmental Regulations 431 12.

5.1 Definitions 432 12.5.2 Environmental Regulations 434 12.5.3 Environmental Analysis 435 References 437 Glossary 441 Conversion Factors 467 Index 469.