List of Figures Introduction 1 Introduction 2 Theory of Moral Development 3 Methodology 4 Overview of Chapters PART 1: Killing the Innocent: Three Discursive Traditions from the Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries 1 The Origins of Double Effect: The Scholastic Tradition 1 Recovering the Primitive Christian Tradition 2 Before Double Effect 3 The Rise of Double Effect 4 Killing the Innocent 5 Killing the Innocent after Aquinas 6 Repurposing Double Effect in the Sixteenth Century 7 Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Scholastics on Siege Warfare 8 English and Scottish Protestants 9 Conclusion2 Martialists: Soldiers and Tacticians 1 Introduction 2 Early Martialists 3 Seventeenth-Century Martialists 4 Shifts in the Martialist Tradition 5 Conclusion3 Humanists and Republicans 1 Introduction 2 Machiavelli 3 Erasmus 4 Gentili 5 Grotius 6 Pufendorf 7 Jeremy Taylor 8 George Dawson 9 Christian Wolff 10 Vattel 11 Conclusion PART 2: The Nineteenth Century 4 Killing Noncombatants in the Nineteenth Century 1 Introduction 2 Counting Casualties 3 Noncombatants 4 Sovereignty and Self-Preservation 5 Utilitarianism 6 The Link between Philosophical Utilitarianism and Military Necessity 7 Conclusion5 Deliberately Targeting Noncombatants 1 Introduction 2 Enduring the Hardships of War: Laying Waste 3 Laying Waste and the Laws of War 4 Starvation and Blockades 5 Sieges 6 Siege and the Laws of War 7 Reprisal, Retaliation, Retorsion 8 Change in Norms 9 The Spatial Dimension of Noncombatant Death 10 Noncombatant Death in the Early Twentieth Century 11 Military Manuals 12 Conclusion PART 3: The Twentieth Century: Aerial Bombing and a Shift in Norms 6 New Possibilities and Problems: Aeronauts, Inventors, and Future-War Fiction on Aerial Bombing 1 Early Experiments 2 Deterrence, Annihilation, or Nonfactor? 3 Future-War Fiction 4 Conclusion7 Interwar Approaches to Bombing: Two Discursive Traditions 1 Introduction 2 Interwar Period Debates on Aerial Bombing 3 International Liberals: Regulation and Disarmament 4 Bombing Realists 5 Strategic versus Terror Bombing 6 Conclusion8 The Return to Intention: Post World War I 1 Introduction 2 German Guilt 3 The Laws of Humanity and Intentional Harm 4 The Return of the Scholastics 5 The Rediscovery of Vitoria and Suarez 6 Catholics against Bombing 7 Conclusion9 Postscript: Intention in the Twenty-First Century 1 Introduction 2 Intention and Folk Psychology 3 Are Intentions Relevant for Twenty-First Century War? Bibliography of Primary Sources 445 Prior to the Sixteenth Century The Sixteenth Century The Seventeenth Century The Eighteenth Century The Nineteenth Century Index.