List of illustrations To the reader To the teacher Acknowledgements Abbreviations 1. The fact of language change 1.1 Irregardless 1.2 English then and now 1.3 Attitudes to language change 1.4 The inevitability of change Case-study: kind regards Further reading Exercises 2. Lexical and semantic change 2.1 Borrowing 2.
2 Phonological treatment of loans 2.3 Morphological treatment of loans 2.4 Formation of new words 2.5 Change in word-meaning Case study: nice Further reading Exercises 3. Phonological change 1: Change in pronunciation 3.1 The phonetic basis of phonological change 3.2 Assimilation and dissimilation 3.3 Lenition and fortition 3.
4 Addition and removal of phonetic features 3.5 Vowels and syllable structure 3.6 Whole-segment processes 3.7 The regularity issue: a first look Case study: Germanic */xw/ in the present-day dialects 3.8 Summary Further reading Exercises 4. Phonological change II: Change in phonological systems 4.1 Conditioning and rephonologization 4.2 Phonological space 4.
3 Chain shifts Case study: large scale change in the Germanic consonant system - Grimm''s Law and Verner''s Law 4.4 Summary Further reading Exercises 5. Morphological change 5.1 Reanalysis 5.2 Analogy and levelling 5.3 Universal principles of analogy 5.4 Morphologization 5.5 Morphologization of phonological rules 5.
6 Change in morphological type Case study: The evolution of the definite article from the demonstrative paradigm in English Further reading Exercises 6. Syntactic change 6.1 Reanalysis of surface structure 6.2 Shift of markedness 6.3 Grammaticalization 6.4 Typological harmony 6.5 Syntactic change as restructuring of grammars Case study: the rise of ergativity Further reading Exercises 7. Relatedness between languages 7.
1 The origin of dialects 7.2 Dialect geography 7.4 Tree model and wave model 7.5 The language families of the world Case study: A Martian''s view on the Germanic language family Further reading Exercises 8. The comparative method 8.1 Systematic correspondences 8.2 Comparative reconstruction 8.3 Pitfalls and limitations 8.
4 The Neogrammarian Hypothesis 8.5 Semantic reconstruction 8.6 The use of typology and universals 8.7 Reconstructing grammar 8.8 The reality of proto-languages Case study: A reconstruction too far? Further reading Exercises 9. Internal Reconstruction 9.1 A first look at the internal method 9.2 Alternations and internal reconstruction 9.
3 Internal reconstruction of grammar and lexicon Case study: The laryngeal theory of PIE Further reading Exercises 10. The origin and propagation of change 10.1 The Saussurean paradox 10.2 Variation and social stratification 10.3 Variation as the vehicle of change 10.4 Lexical diffusion 10.5 Near-mergers Case study: historical sociolinguistics Further reading Exercises 11. Social and historical pressures upon language 11.
1 Linguistic contact 11.2 Linguistic areas 11.3 Language birth: pidgins and creoles 11.4 Language planning 11.5 Language death Case study: the genesis and development of American and New Zealand English Further reading Exercises 12. Language and pre-history 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Linguistic palaeontology 12.
3 Links with archaeology 12.4 Statistical methods Case study: Greenberg''s mass comparison Further reading Exercises Appendix: The Swadesh 200-word list References Index.