1. Introduction 2. Foundation of Ionospheric Theory 2.1 Continuity equation 2.2 Momentum equation 2.3 Boundary conditions 2.4 Ambipolar diffusion equation 2.5 Eddy diffusion equation 2.

6 Energy balance equation 3. Instruments for Ionospheric Measurements on Mars 3.1 Radio Occultation 3.2 Neutral and Ion Mass Spectrometer 3.3 Retarding Potential Analyzer 3.4 Langmuir Probe 3.5 Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionospheric Sounding 4. Exploration to Mars Atmosphere 4.

1 Mariner 6, 7 and 9 4.2 Mars 2, 3 and 4 4.3 Viking 1 and 2 4.4 Mars Global Surveyor 4.5 Mars Express 4.6 Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution 4.7 Mangalyaan 5. Thermal Structure of Mars Atmosphere 5.

1 Troposphere 5.2 Stratosphere 5.3 Mesosphere 5.4 Thermosphere 5.5 Exosphere 6. Magnetic Field of Mars 6.1 Earlier measurements: Mariner 4 and Mars 2, 3, 5, 6 & 7 6.2 Latest measurements: MGS 6.

3 Induced magnetic field 6.4 Crustal magnetic field 6.5 Mini-magnetosphere 6.6 Global modeling of Mars magnetic field 7. Upper Atmosphere of Mars 7.1 Atmospheric measurements 7.2 Neutral composition and scale height 7.3 Atmospheric waves and dynamics 7.

4 Hydrostatic equilibrium on Mars 7.5 Atmospheric models 8. Atmospheric Escape from Mars 8.1 Earlier measurements: PHOBOS-2 8.2 Latest measurements: MEX 8.3 Jeans escape mechanism 8.4 Thermal and Non-thermal escape processes 8.5 Modeling of escape flux and density 9.

Upper Ionosphere of Mars 9.1 Photochemical equilibrium region 9.2 Diffusive equilibrium region 9.3 Plasma transport processes 9.4 Early measurements: Mariner 6, 7 & 9; Mars 2, 3, 4 & 6; Viking 1& 2 9.5 Latest measurements: MGS, MEX and MARSIS 9.6 Solar zenith angle dependence of Mars ionosphere 9.7 Generalized Chapman Function 10.

Heating of the Upper Ionosphere of Mars 10.1 Plasma temperature measurements 10.2 Heating and cooling processes 10.3 Temperature variability 10.4 Solar wind heating on the upper ionosphere 10.5 Modeling of plasma temperature 11. Models of the Martian ionosphere 11.1 Boltzmann transport model 11.

2 Macroscopic description of plasma 11.3 MHD and Hybrid models 11.4 Monte Carlo method 11.5 Two stream method 11.6 AYS approach 11.7 Energy loss method 11.8 Kinetic transport model 12. Solar Flux for Ionospheric Modeling of Mars 12.

1 EUV flux measurements: SOHO 12.2 X-ray flux measurements: GOES 12.3 EUV and X-ray flux measurements: SORCE 12.4 EUV and X-ray model flux: SOLAR 2000 12.5 Solar cycle variations for various Mars missions 13. Cross Sections for Ionospheric Modeling of Mars 13.1 Photo impact measured cross sections of CO2, N2, O2, O & CO 13.2 Electron impact measured cross sections of CO2, N2, O2, O & CO 13.

3 Empirical modeling of electron impact excitation cross sections 13.4 Empirical modeling of electron impact ionization cross sections 14. Ionization Sources of Upper Ionosphere of Mars 14.1 Ionization by solar EUV: F region ionosphere 14.2 Ionization by X-rays: E region ionosphere 14.3 Solar wind impact ionization 14.4 Dynamics of the upper ionosphere 14.5 Chemistry of the upper ionosphere 14.

6 Ionospheric modeling during quiet condition 15. Mars Upper Ionospheric Disturbances 15.1 Solar flares and upper ionospheric disturbances 15.2 Effect of CMEs on the upper ionosphere 15.3 Effect of SEPs on the upper ionosphere 15.4 Ionospheric modeling due to X-ray flares 15.5 Auroral Ionosphere 16. Upper Ionosphere of Mars during Low, Medium and High Solar Activity 16.

1 Sunspot and solar activity 16.2 Effects of solar activity in the topside ionosphere 16.3 Ionospheric measurements: Low, medium and high solar activity 16.4 Ionospheric modeling: Low, medium and high solar activity 16.5 Solar rotation effects on the Martian ionosphere 17. Airglow on Mars 17.1 Early dayglow measurements: Mariners 6, 7 & 9 17.2 Latest dayglow measurements: MEX and MAVEN 17.

3 Early nightglow measurements: Mars 4 and 5 17.4 Physical processes of airglow 17.5 Modeling of dayglow 17.6 Modeling of nightglow 18. Middle Ionosphere of Mars 18.1 MGS measurements and Meteoric layer 18.2 MEX measurements and Meteoric layer 18.3 Meteoroid flux and composition 18.

4 Meteors at Mars during the encounter of Comet C/2013 18.5 Composition of meteoric ions 18.6 Chemistry of meteoric ions 18.7 Meteoric model 19. Gravity Waves in the Middle Atmosphere of Mars 19.1 Gravity waves 19.2 Stratospheric Gravity waves 19.3 Ionospheric Gravity waves 19.

4 Gravity waves in the airglow 19.5 Ion drag 19.6 Heat and momentum 19.7 Coriolis force 20. Lower Atmosphere of Mars 20.1 Temperature and pressure measurements 20.2 Neutral density and composition 20.3 Dynamics of the lower atmosphere 20.

4 Atmospheric wind 20.5 Models of the lower atmosphere 21. Trace Gases of Mars Atmosphere 21.1 Ozone 21.2 Water vapor 21.3 Sulpher dioxide 21.4 Methane 21.5 Argon 22.

Seasonal Variability of Atmospheric Gases 22.1 Basics of Global Circulation Model 22.2 Ozone variability 22.3 Global mapping of water vapor 22.4 Seasonal variability of carbon dioxide 22.5 Seasonal variability of carbon monoxide 22.6 Seasonal variability of oxygen 23. Infrared Thermal Emissions from Mars Atmosphere 23.

1 Thermal Emission Spectrometer: MGS measurement 23.2 Planetary Fourier Spectrometer: MEX measurement 23.3 Brightness temperature of Mars 23.4 Planck function and radiance 23.5 Radiative transfer model 23.6 Effects of dust storm on thermal emission spectra 24. Lower Ionosphere of Mars 24.1 Mars 4 and 5 measurements 24.

2 Galactic cosmic ray ionization 24.3 Chemistry of the lower ionosphere 24.4 D layer ionosphere of Mars 24.5 Models of the lower ionosphere 25. Conductivity 25.1 Ion conductivity in the lower ionosphere 25.2 Effect of dust storm on conductivity 25.3 Ion-dust model 25.

4 Chemistry of dusty ionosphere 25.5 Atmospheric electricity 25.6 Aerosol charging 26. Dust Storm in the Lower Atmosphere of Mars 26.1 Infrared dust optical depth: MGS Measurements 26.2 Infrared dust optical depth: Mars Odyssey Measurements 26.3 Dust layers in the Martian atmosphere 26.4 Characteristics of Dust and its size distribution 26.

5 Effects of dust in the D region ionosphere 26.6 Density distribution model of aerosol particles 27. Summary and Conclusions Appendix 1- Photoabsorption and photoionization cross sections Appendix 2- Electron impact crossections of CO2, N2, O2, O and CO Appendix 3- Chemical reactions for upper ionosphere of Mars Appendix 4- Chemical reactions for lower ionosphere of Mars Appendic 5- Chemical reactions for dusty ionosphere of Mars Appendix 6- Chemical reactions for meteoric ions References.