Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Virtual Reality: The Science of Illusion 1.2 Basic Concepts 1.2.1 Immersion 1.2.2 Presence 1.3 A Brief History of Virtual Reality 1.
4 Reality-Virtuality Continuum 1.5 Metaverse 1.5.1 Metaverse and its Future 1.5.2 Major Technologies to Empower the Metaverse Part I Fundamentals 2 Computer Graphics 2.1 Mathematics 2.1.
1 Coordinate Systems 2.1.2 Vectors, Transformations and Matrices 2.1.3 Angular Representations 2.1.4 Projections 2.2 3D Modeling 2.
2.1 Geometric Representations 2.2.2 Curves 2.2.3 Surfaces 2.3 3D Rendering 2.3.
1 Local Illumination Model 2.3.2 Global Illumination Model 2.3.3 Textures 2.3.4 Rendering Pipeline 2.4 Game Engines 3 Computer Animation 3.
1 Introduction 3.1.1 Animation Types: Real Time and Image by Image 3.1.2 Articulated Bodies and Virtual Characters 3.2 Motion Control Methods 3.3 Motion Capture and Performance Animation 3.3.
1 Optical Motion Capture Systems 3.3.2 Non-Optical Motion Capture 3.3.3 Motion Capture Advantages and Disadvantages 3.4 Key-Frame Animation 3.4.1 Shape Interpolation and Parametric Keyframe Animation 3.
4.2 Kochanek-Bartels Spline Interpolation 3.5 Inverse Kinematics 3.6 Motion Retargeting 3.7 Procedural Animation 3.8 Physics-Based Animation 3.9 Behavioral Animation Part II Virtual Worlds 4 Virtual Characters 4.1 Virtual Humans in Virtual Environments 4.
2 Character Skinning 4.2.1 Skeleton-Based Deformations 4.2.2 Data-Driven Methods 4.2.3 Physics-Based Approaches 4.3 Locomotion 4.
3.1 Locomotion Generation 4.3.2 PCA-Based Locomotion 4.4 Virtual Human-Object interaction 4.4.1 Feature Modeling and Smart Objects 4.4.
2 Grasping 4.4.3 Motion Planning 4.5 Facial Animation 4.6 Autonomous Characters 4.6.1 Why Autonomous Virtual Characters? 4.6.
2 Properties of Autonomous Virtual Characters 4.6.3 Behaviors for Autonomous Virtual Characters 4.7 Crowd Simulation 5 Architecture of Virtual Reality Systems 5.1 Scene Graph-Based Systems 5.2 Semantic Virtual Environments 5.3 Generic System Architecture for VR Systems 5.4 Distributed Virtual Environments 5.
4.1 Communication Architecture 5.4.2 Interest Management 5.4.3 Concurrency Control 5.4.4 Data Replication 5.
4.5 Load Distribution 5.5 Metaverse 5.5.1 The Concept of Avatar 5.5.2 Online Worlds 5.6 Metaverse and the Internet of Things (IoT) 6 Mixed Realities 6.
1 Augmented Reality and Augmented Virtuality 6.2 Tracking Techniques 6.2.1 Markers-Based Tracking 6.2.2 Marker-Less Tracking 6.3 Mixed Reality Tool Kits 6.4 Deep Learning and 3D Hand Pose Part III Perceiving Virtual Worlds 7.
Senses and Sensors 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The 5 senses 7.3 The Extra Senses 7.3.1 Proprioception 7.3.2 Equilibrioception 7.
3.3 Pallesthesia 7.3.4 Thermoception 7.3.5 Nociception 7.3.6 Chronoception 8.
Vision 8.1 Graphical Display Technologies 8.1.1 Cathode-Ray Tubes 8.1.2 Liquid Crystal Displays 8.1.3 Plasma Displays 8.
2 Virtual Reality Displays 8.2.1 Head-Mounted Displays 8.2.2 Fish Tank VR 8.2.3 Handheld Displays 8.2.
4 Large Projection Screens 8.2.5 CAVE Systems 9 Audition 9.1 The Need for Sound in VR 9.2 Recording and Reproduction of Spatial Sound 9.3 Synthesis of Spatial Sound 9.3.1 Sound Rendering 9.
3.2 Head-Related Transfer Function 9.3.3 3D Sound Imaging 9.3.4 Utilization of Loudspeaker Location 9.4 Sound Systems for VR 9.4.
1 Sound Hardware 9.4.2 Sound Engines 9.5 Immersive Sound 10 Touch 10.1 The Need for Touch in VR 10.2 Data Gloves 10.3 Haptic Rendering 10.3.
1 History of Haptic Rendering 10.4 Haptic Interfaces 10.4.1 Vibrotactile Displays 10.4.2 Tactile Displays 10.4.3 Kinesthetic Displays 11 Smell and Taste 11.
1 The Need for Smells and Tastes in VR 11.2 Smell Interfaces 11.3 Taste interfaces 12 Brain-Computer Interfaces 12.1 BCI Principles 12.2. BCI in Virtual Reality Part IV Applications 13 Health Sciences 13.1 Virtual Surgery 13.1.
2 Principles of Virtual Surgery 13.1.2 Case Studies in Virtual Surgery 13.1.3 Commercial Virtual Surgery Simulators 13.1.4 The Intelligent Digital Surgeon 13.2 Virtual Rehabilitation and Therapy 13.
2.1 Physiotherapy 13.2.2 Psychological Therapy 13.2.3 Autism and Virtual Dolphins 13.3 Virtual Anatomy 14 Cultural Heritage 14.1 Virtual Campeche and Calakmul 14.
2 Virtual Dunhuang 14.3 Terracotta Soldiers 14.4 EU-INCO CAHRISMA and ERATO 14.5 EU-HORIZON 2020 Mingei 15 Other VR Applications 15.1 Vehicle Simulators 15.2 Manufacturing 15.3 Entertainment 15.4 Virtual Reality and Sport.