1 Introduction 1.1 Definition of Surveying 1.2 Geomatics 1.3 History of Surveying 1.4 Geodetic and Plane Surveys 1.5 Importance of Surveying 1.6 Specialized Types of Surveys 1.7 Surveying Safety 1.

8 Land and Geographic Information Systems 1.9 Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies 1.10 The Surveying Profession 1.11 Professional Surveying Organizations 1.12 Surveying on the Internet 1.13 Future Challenges in Surveying Problems Bibliography 2 Units, Significant Figures, and Field Notes Part I Units and Significant Figures 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Units of Measurement 25t 2.

3 International System of Units (SI) 2.4 Significant Figures 2.5 Rounding Off Numbers Part II Field Notes 2.6 Field Notes 2.7 General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes 2.8 Types of Field Books 2.9 Kinds of Notes 2.10 Arrangements of Notes 2.

11 Suggestions for Recording Notes 2.12 Introduction to Data Collectors 2.13 Transfer of Files from Data Collectors 2.14 Digital Data File Management 2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Collectors Problems Bibliography 3 Theory of Errors in Observations 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Direct and Indirect Observations 3.3 Errors in Measurements 3.

4 Mistakes 3.5 Sources of Errors in Making Observations 3.6 Types of Errors 3.7 Precision and Accuracy 3.8 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors 3.9 Probability 3.10 Most Probable Value 3.11 Residuals 3.

12 Occurrence of Random Errors 3.13 General Laws of Probability 3.14 Measures of Precision 3.15 Interpretation of Standard Deviation 3.16 The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors 3.17 Error Propagation 3.17.1 Error of a Sum 3.

17.2 Error of a Series 3.17.3 Error in a Product 3.17.4 Error in the Mean 3.18 Applications 3.19 Conditional Adjustment of Observations 3.

20 Weights of Observations 3.21 Least-Squares Adjustment Problems Bibliography 4 Leveling-Theory, Methods, and Equipment Part I Leveling-Theory and Methods 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Definitions 4.3 North American Vertical Datum 4.4 Curvature and Refraction 4.5 Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation 4.5.

1 Measuring Vertical Distances by Taping or Electronic Methods 4.5.2 Differential Leveling 4.5.3 Barometric Leveling 4.5.4 Trigonometric Leveling Part II Equipment for Differential Leveling 4.6 Categories of Levels 4.

7 Telescopes 4.8 Level Vials 4.9 Tilting Levels 4.10 Automatic Levels 4.11 Digital Levels 4.12 Tripods 4.13 Hand Level 4.14 Level Rods 4.

15 Testing and Adjusting Levels 4.15.1 Requirements for Testing and Adjusting Instruments 4.15.2 Adjusting for Parallax 4.15.3 Testing and Adjusting Level Vials 4.15.

4 Preliminary Adjustment of the Horizontal Cross Hair 4.15.5 Testing and Adjusting the Line of Sight Problems Bibliography 5 Leveling Field Procedures and Computations 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Carrying and Setting Up a Level 5.3 Duties of a Rodperson 5.4 Differential Leveling 5.5 Precision 5.

6 Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits 5.7 Reciprocal Leveling 5.8 Three-Wire Leveling 5.9 Profile Leveling 5.9.1 Staking and Stationing the Reference Line 5.9.2 Field Procedures for Profile Leveling 5.

9.3 Drawing and Using the Profile 5.10 Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling 5.11 Use of the Hand Level 5.12 Sources of Error in Leveling 5.12.1 Instrumental Errors 5.12.

2 Natural Errors 5.12.3 Personal Errors 5.13 Mistakes 5.14 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes Problems Bibliography 6 Distance Measurement Part I Methods for Measuring Distances 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements 6.3 Pacing 6.

4 Odometer Readings 6.5 Optical Rangefinders 6.6 Tacheometry 6.7 Subtense Bar Part II Distance Measurements by Taping 6.8 Introduction to Taping 6.9 Taping Equipment and Accessories 6.10 Care of Taping Equipment 6.11 Taping on Level Ground 6.

11.1 Lining In 6.11.2 Applying Tension 6.11.3 Plumbing 6.11.4 Marking Tape Lengths 6.

11.5 Reading the Tape 6.11.6 Recording the Distance 6.12 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground 6.13 Slope Measurements 6.14 Sources of Error in Taping 6.14.

1 Incorrect Length of Tape 6.14.2 Temperature Other Than Standard 6.14.3 Inconsistent Pull 6.14.4 Sag 6.14.

5 Tape Not Horizontal and Tape Off-Line 6.14.6 Improper Plumbing 6.14.7 Faulty Marking 6.14.8 Incorrect Reading or Interpolation 6.14.

9 Summary of Effects of Taping Errors 6.15 Tape Problems 6.16 Combined Corrections in a Taping Problem Part II Electronic Distance Measurement 6.17 Introduction 6.18 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy 6.19 Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement 6.20 Electro-Optical Instruments 6.21 Total Station Instruments 6.

22 EDM Instruments Without Reflectors 6.23 Computing Horizontal Lengths From Slope Distances 6.23.1 Reduction of Short Lines by Elevation Differences 6.23.2 Reduction of Short Lines by Zenith or Altitude Angle 6.24 Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement 6.24.

1 Personal Errors 6.24.2 Instrumental Errors 6.24.3 Natural Errors Problems Bibliography 7 Angles, Azimuths, and Bearings 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Units of Angle Measurement 7.3 Kinds of Horizontal Angles 7.

4 Direction of a Line 7.5 Azimuths 7.6 Bearings 7.7 Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings 7.8 Computing Azimuths 7.9 Computing Bearings 7.10 The Compass and The Earth''s Magnetic Field 7.11 Magnetic Declination 7.

12 Variations in Magnetic Declination 7.13 Software for Determining Magnetic Declination 7.14 Local Attraction 7.15 Typical Magnetic Declination Problems 7.16 Mistakes Problems Bibliography 8 Total Station Instruments: Angle Measurements Part I Total Station Instruments 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Characteristics of Total Station Instruments 8.3 Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments 8.

4 Parts of a Total Station Instrument 8.5 Handling and Setting Up a Total Station Instrument 8.6 Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments Part II Angle Measurements 8.7 Relationship of Angles and Distances 8.8 Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments 8.9 Observing Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method 8.10 Closing the Horizon 8.11 Observing Deflection Angles 8.

12 Observing Azimuths 8.13 Observing Vertical Angles 8.14 Sights and Marks 8.15 Prolonging a Straight Line 8.16 Balancing-In 8.17 Random Traverse 8.18 Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences 8.19 Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories 8.

19.1 Adjustment of Plate-Level Vials 8.19.2 Adjustment of Tripods 8.19.3 Adjustment of Tribrachs 8.19.4 Adjustment of Optical Plummets 8.

19.5 Adjustment of Circular Level Bubbles 8.20 Sources of Error in Total Station Work 8.20.1 Instrumental Errors 8.20.2 Natural Errors 8.20.

3 Personal Errors 8.21 Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations 8.22 Mistakes Problems Bibliography 9 Traversing 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions 9.2.1 Traversing by Interior Angles 9.2.

2 Traversing by Angles to the Right 9.2.3 Traversing by Deflection Angles 9.2.4 Traversing by Azimuths 9.3 Observation of Traverse Lengths 9.4 Selection of Traverse Stations 9.5 Referencing Traverse Stations 9.

6 Traverse Field Notes 9.7 Angle Misclosure 9.8 Traversing with Total Station Instruments 9.9 Radial Traversing 9.10 Sources of Error in Traversing 9.11 Mistakes in Traversing Problems 10 Traverse Computations 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Balancing Angles 10.

3 Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings 10.4 Departures and Latitudes 10.5 Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions 10.6 Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision 10.7 Traverse Adjustment 10.7.1 Compass (Bowditch) Rule 10.7.

2 Least-Squares Method 10.8 Rectangular Coordinates 10.9 Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations 10.9.1 Balancing Angles by Adjusting Azimuths or Bearings 10.9.2 Balancing Departures and Latitudes by Adjusting Coordinates 10.10 Lengths and Directions of Lines from Departures and Latitudes or Coordinates 10.

11 Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions 10.12 Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys 10.13 Use of Open Traverses 10.14 State Plane Coordinate Systems 10.15 Traverse Computations Using Computers 10.16 Locating Blunders in Traverse Measurements 10.17 Mistakes in Traverse Computations Problems Bibliography 11 Coordinate Geom.