Preface xv 1 An Overview of Electro-Fermentation as a Platform for Future Biorefineries 1 Tae Hyun Chung and Bipro Ranjan Dhar 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Fundamental Mechanisms 5 1.3 Value-Added Products from Electro-Fermentation 7 1.3.1 Carboxylates 11 1.3.1.

1 Short-Chain Carboxylates 11 1.3.1.2 Medium-Chain Carboxylates 13 1.3.2 Bioethanol 14 1.3.3 Bio-Butanol 16 1.

3.4 Microalgae Derived Lipids 18 1.3.5 Acetoin 21 1.3.6 Biopolymer 23 1.3.7 L-lysine 25 1.

3.8 1,3-propanediol 27 1.4 Challenges and Future Outlook 29 1.5 Acknowledgements 30 References 30 2 Biodiesel Sustainability: Challenges and Perspectives 41 Hussein N. Nassar, Abdallah R. Ismail and Nour Sh. El-Gendy Abbreviations 42 2.1 Introduction 44 2.

2 Biodiesel Production 48 2.3 Factors Affecting Biodiesel Production Process 51 2.3.1 The Type of Feedstock 51 2.3.2 The Type of Alcohol 54 2.3.3 Effect of Alcohol to Oil Molar Ratio 55 2.

3.4 Catalyst Concentration 55 2.3.5 Catalysts Type 56 2.3.5.1 Lipases 56 2.3.

5.2 Acid Catalysts 58 2.3.5.3 Alkaline Catalysts 63 2.3.6 Effect of Reaction Temperature 73 2.3.

7 Effect of Reaction Time 74 2.3.8 Mixing Efficiency 75 2.3.9 Effect of pH 76 2.4 Transesterification Mechanisms 76 2.4.1 Homogeneous Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification Reaction 76 2.

4.2 Lipase-Catalyzed Transesterification Reaction 77 2.4.3 CaO-Catalyzed Transesterification Reaction 77 2.4.4 Other Calcium Derived-Catalyzed Transesterification Reaction 80 2.5 Production of Biodiesel Using Heterogeneous Catalyst Prepared from Natural Sources 81 2.6 Challenges and Perspectives 94 References 99 3 Multidisciplinary Sides of Environmental Engineering and Sustainability 123 Said S.

E. H. Elnashaie 3.1 Introduction 124 3.2 System Theory and Integrated System Approach 126 3.2.1 System Theory 126 3.2.

2 The State of the System and State Variables 128 3.2.3 Input Variables (Parameters) 128 3.2.4 Design Variables (Parameters) 128 3.2.5 Physico-Chemical Variables (Parameters) 128 3.2.

6 Boundaries of System 129 3.2.6.1 Isolated System 129 3.2.6.2 Closed System 129 3.2.

6.3 Open System 129 3.2.7 Steady, Unsteady States and Thermodynamic Equilibrium of Systems 130 3.3 Sustainable Development, Sustainable Development Engineering and Environmental Engineering 130 3.3.1 Bio-Fuels and Integrated Bio-Refineries 132 3.3.

2 Integrated System Approach 137 3.4 Advanced Multi-Disciplinary Sustainable Engineering Education 139 3.4.1 Bio-Fuels 143 3.4.1.1 Bio-Hydrogen 143 3.4.

1.2 Bio-Diesel 143 3.4.1.3 Bio-Ethanol 144 3.4.2 Bio-Products 145 3.4.

3 Integrated Bio-Refineries 146 3.4.4 Development of Novel Technologies 147 3.4.5 Economics of Bio-Fuels and Bio-Products 147 3.4.6 Nano-Technology (NT) 148 3.4.

7 Non-Linear Dynamics (NLDs), Bifurcation (B), Chaos (C) and Complexity (COMP) 148 3.4.8 Sustainable Development (SD), Sustainable Development Engineering (SDE), System Theory (ST) and Integrated System Approach (ISA) 149 3.4.9 Novel Education 149 3.4.10 New Journal 150 3.5 Novel Designs for Auto-Thermal Behavior Towards Sustainability 152 3.

5.1 Integrated System Approach Classification 153 3.6 Conclusions 156 References 156 4 Biofuels 163 Karuna K. Arjoon and James G. Speight 4.1 Introduction 163 4.2 Composition 165 4.3 Classification of Biofuels 166 4.

3.1 First-Generation Biofuels 166 4.3.1.1 Sugars and Starch 166 4.3.1.2 Cellulose 168 4.

3.1.3 Lignin 168 4.3.2 Second-Generation Biofuels 169 4.3.3 Third-Generation Biofuels 169 4.4 Examples of Biofuels 170 4.

4.1 Biodiesel 170 4.4.2 Bio-Alcohols 174 4.4.3 Bioethers 176 4.4.4 Biogas 177 4.

4.5 Bio-Oil 179 4.4.6 Synthesis Gas 180 4.5 Property Variations with Source 181 4.6 Properties Compared to Fuels from Crude Oil Tar Sand Bitumen, Coal and Oil Shale 185 4.7 Fuel Specifications and Performance 189 4.8 Conclusion 195 References 197 5 Sustainable Valorization of Waste Cooking Oil into Biofuels and Green Chemicals: Recent Trends, Opportunities and Challenges 199 Omar Aboelazayem and Ranim Alayoubi 5.

1 Introduction 200 5.2 Waste Cooking Oil (WCO) 201 5.3 Biofuels from WCO 203 5.3.1 Biodiesel 203 5.3.2 Biojet Fuel 206 5.3.

2.1 Hydro-Treatment Process 208 5.3.2.2 Cracking and Isomerisation Processes 209 5.4 Green Chemicals from WCO 210 5.4.1 Asphalt Rejuvenator 211 5.

4.2 Plasticizers 212 5.4.3 Polyurethane Foam 214 5.4.4 Bio-Lubricants 215 5.4.5 Surfactants 215 5.

5 Challenges and Future Work 216 5.6 Conclusion 217 References 218 6 Waste Valorization: Physical, Chemical, and Biological Routes 229 Muhammad Faheem, Muhammad Azher Hassan, Tariq Mehmood, Sarfraz Hashim and Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf 6.1 Background 230 6.2 Land Biomass vs. Oceanic Biomass 233 6.3 Waste Management 233 6.4 Waste Valorization for Adsorbents Development 234 6.5 Waste Valorization for Catalysts Preparations 237 6.

6 Bio-Based Waste Valorization for Bio-Fuel and Bio-Fertilizer Production 240 6.6.1 Biomass Briquetting: (Bio-Fuel) 240 6.6.2 Composting: (Bio-Fertilizer) 241 6.6.3 Anaerobic Digestion: (Bio-Fuel) 243 6.7 Biochemical Mechanism Involved in Anaerobic Digestion System 244 6.

7.1 Hydrolysis 244 6.7.2 Acidogenesis 244 6.7.3 Acetogenesis 245 6.7.4 Methanogenesis 245 6.

8 Challenges and Recent Advances in Anaerobic Digestion 245 6.9 Bio-Based Waste and Bioeconomy Perspective 246 6.10 Conclusion 248 References 248 7 Electrocoagulation Process in the Treatment of Landfill Leachate 257 Mohd Azhar Abd Hamid, Hamidi Abdul Aziz and Mohd Suffian Yusoff 7.1 Introduction 258 7.2 Decomposition of Solid Waste 259 7.3 Landfill Leachate Properties 262 7.3.1 Organic Matter 262 7.

3.2 Inorganic Substances 263 7.3.3 Heavy Metals 263 7.3.4 Xenobiotic Organics 264 7.4 Characteristics of Landfill Leachate 264 7.5 Electrocoagulation Process 267 7.

5.1 Fundamentals of Electrocoagulation Process 267 7.5.2 Mechanism of Electrocoagulation Process 269 7.5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages 272 7.6 Key Parameters of Electrocoagulation Process 272 7.6.

1 Electrodes Material 272 7.6.2 Electrodes Arrangement 274 7.6.3 Electrode Spacing 275 7.6.4 Current Density 276 7.6.

5 Electrolysis Time 277 7.6.6 Initial pH 278 7.6.7 Agitation Speed 279 7.6.8 Electrolyte Conductivity 280 7.7 Operating Mode 281 7.

8 Economic Analysis 283 7.9 Case Study: Removal of the Organic Pollutant of Colour in Natural Saline Leachate from Pulau Burung Landfill Site 284 7.9.1 Pulau Burung Landfill Site 285 7.9.2 Experimental Design 286 7.9.3 Results and Discussion 287 7.

10 Gaps in Current Knowledge 288 7.11 Conclusion and Future Prospect 289 References 290 8 Sustainable Solutions for Environmental Pollutants from Solid Waste Landfills 305 Salem S. Abu Amr, Mohammed J.K. Bashir, Sohaib K. M. Abujayyab and Waseem Ahmad 8.1 Introduction 306 8.

2 Domestic Solid Waste and Its Critical Environmental Issues 306 8.3 Landfill Leachate Characterization and Its Impact on the Environment 307 8.4 Effect of Landfills on Air Quality 311 8.5 Effect of Unsuitable Location of Landfill on Environment and Community 315 8.6 Recent Sustainable Technologies for Leachate Treatment 318 8.6.1 Effects of AOPs on Leachate Biodegradability 320 8.6.

2 Case Study and Proposed Data for Leachate Treatment Plant Using AOPs 322 8.7 Sustainable Solutions for Gas Emission 324 8.8 Consideration for Selection of Sustainable Locations for Landfills 328 8.9 Conclusion 331 References 332 9 Progress on Ionic Liquid Pre-Treatment for Lignocellulosic Biomass Valorization into Biofuels and Bio-Products 343 Ranim Alayoubi and Omar Aboelazayem 9.1 Introduction 344 9.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass for Biofuels and Bio-Products 345 9.2.1 Cellulose 346 9.

2.2 Hemicellulose 347 9.2.3 Lignin 348 9.3 Pre-Treatment Technologies for Lignocellulosic Biomass 349 9.4 Ionic Liquids for Lignocellulosic Biomass Pre-Treatment: Characteristics and Properties 354 9.5 Insights into Pre-Treatment Performance of Ionic Liquids 357 9.5.

1 Interactions of Ionic Liquids with Lignocellulose 357 9.5.2 Effect of the Ionic Liquid Pre-Treatment on the Recovered Biomass 359 9.5.3 Impact of Ionic Liquids on the Biological Tools 361 9.6 Concluding Remarks: Challenges Facing the Development of Ionic Liquids Use at Large Scale and Future Directions 364 References 365 10 Septage Characterization and Sustainable Fecal Sludge Management in Rural Nablus - Palestine 375 A. Rasem Hasan,Mohammed A. Hussein, Hanan A.

Jafar and Amjad I.A. Hussein List of Abbreviations 376 10.1 Introduction 377 10.1.1 Background 377 10.1.2 What is Fecal Sludge? 378 10.

1.3 Legal Considerations 378 10.1.4.