Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures Preface to the fourth edition The International Phonetic Alphabet Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Phonetics and phonology 1.2 The generative enterprise Further reading Chapter 2 Introduction to articulatory phonetics 2.1 Overview 2.1.1 Airstream mechanism 2.1.2 The vocal cords 2.

1.3 The velum 2.1.4 The oral tract 2.1.5 Manner of articulation 2.1.6 Place of articulation 2.

2 Speech sound classification 2.3 Supra segmental structure 2.4 Consonants vs. vowels Further reading Chapter 3 Consonants 3.1 Stops 3.1.1 The production of stops 3.1.

2 The release stage 3.1.3 Aspiration 3.1.4 Voicing 3.1.5 Glottalisation and the glottal stop 3.1.

6 Variation in stops 3.2 Affricates 3.2.1 Voicing and variation 3.3 Fricatives 3.3.1 Distribution 3.3.

2 Voicing 3.3.3 Variation in fricatives 3.4 Nasals 3.4.1 Distribution and variation 3.5 Liquids 3.5.

1 Laterals 3.5.1.1 Distribution and variation 3.5.2 Rhotics 3.5.2.

1 Distribution 3.5.2.2 Variation 3.6 Glides 3.6.1 Distribution 3.6.

2 Variation 3.7 An inventory of English consonants Further reading Chapter 4 Vowels 4.1 Vowel classification 4.2 The vowel space and Cardinal Vowels 4.3 Further classifications 4.4 The vowels of English 4.4.1 High front vowels 4.

4.2 Mid front vowels 4.4.3 Low front vowels 4.4.4 Low back vowels 4.4.5 Mid back vowels 4.

4.6 High back vowels 4.4.7 Central vowels 4.4.8 Distribution 4.5 Some vowel systems of English 4.5.

1 RP (Conservative) 4.5.2 North American English (General American) 4.5.3 Northern English English 4.5.4 Lowland Scottish English 4.5.

5 Australian English Further reading Chapter 5 Acoustic phonetics 5.1 Fundamentals 5.1.1 Waves 5.1.2 Sound 5.1.3 Machine analysis 5.

1.3.1 Spectrograms 5.1.3.2 Waveforms 5.2 Speech sounds 5.2.

1 Vowels and sonorants 5.2.2 Nasalisation, nasal vowels and rhoticisation 5.2.2.1 Nasalisation and nasal vowels 5.2.2.

2 Rhoticised vowels 5.2.3 Other sonorants 5.2.4 Non sonorant consonants 5.2.4.1 Stops 5.

2.4.2 Fricatives 5.2.4.3 Transitions 5.2.4.

4 Voice onset time 5.3 Cross linguistic values Further reading Chapter 6 Above the segment 6.1 The syllable 6.1.1 The syllable as a phonetic entity 6.1.2 The internal structure of the syllable 6.1.

3 Sonority and syllables 6.1.4 Syllable boundaries 6.1.5 Syllable typology 6.2 Stress 6.2.1 The functions of stress 6.

2.2 Stress placement 6.2.3 Stress above the level of the word 6.3 Tone and intonation 6.3.1 Pitch 6.3.

2 Tone 6.3.3 Intonation Further reading Chapter 7 Features 7.1 Segmental composition 7.2 Phonetic vs. phonological features 7.3 Charting the features 7.3.

1 Major class features 7.3.2 Consonantal features 7.3.3 Place features 7.3.4 Manner features 7.3.

5 Vocalic features 7.3.5.1 [high] 7.3.5.2 [low] 7.3.

5.3 [back] 7.3.5.4 [front] 7.3.5.5 [round] 7.

3.5.6 [tense] 7.3.5.7 [Advanced Tongue Root] 7.3.6 Further considerations 7.

4 Conclusion Further reading Chapter 8 Phonemic analysis 8.1 Sounds that are the same but different 8.2 Finding phonemes and allophones 8.2.1 Minimal pairs and contrastive distribution 8.2.2 Complementary distribution 8.2.

3 Free variation 8.2.4 Overview 8.3 Linking levels: rules 8.4 Choosing the underlying form 8.4.1 Phonetic naturalness and phonological analysis 8.4.

2 Phonetic similarity 8.4.3 Process naturalness 8.4.4 Pattern congruity 8.5 Summary Further reading Chapter 9 Phonological alternations, processes and rules 9.1 Alternations vs. processes vs.

rules 9.2 Alternation types 9.2.1 Phonetically conditioned alternations 9.2.2 Phonetically and morphologically conditioned alternations 9.2.3 Phonetically, morphologically and lexically conditioned alternations 9.

2.4 Non phonological alternations: suppletion 9.3 Representing phonological generalisations: rules and constraints 9.3.1 Formal rules 9.3.1.1 Parentheses notation 9.

3.1.2 Braces 9.3.2 Constraints 9.4 Overview of phonological operations 9.4.1 Feature changing rules 9.

4.2 Deletion 9.4.3 Insertion 9.4.4 Metathesis 9.4.5 Reduplication 9.

5 Summary Further reading Chapter 10 Phonological structure 10.1 The need for richer phonological representation 10.2 Segment internal structure: feature geometry, underspecification and unary features 10.3 Autosegmental phonology 10.4 Suprasegmental structure 10.4.1 The syllable and its internal structure 10.4.

2 Mora 10.4.3 Foot 10.4.4 Structure above the foot 10.5 Conclusion Further reading Chapter 11 Derivational analysis 11.1 The aims of analysis 11.2 A derivational analysis of English noun plural formation 11.

3 Extrinsic vs. intrinsic rule ordering 11.4 Evaluating competing analyses: evidence, economy and plausibility 11.4.1 Competing rules 11.4.2 Competing derivations 11.4.

3 Admissible evidence 11.5 Conclusion Further reading Chapter 12 Constraint based analysis 12.1 Introduction to Optimality Theory 12.2 The aims of analysis 12.3 Modelling phonological processes in OT 12.3.1 Assimilation 12.3.

2 Deletion 12.3.3 Insertion 12.3.4 Metathesis 12.3.5 Reduplication 12.4 English noun plural formation: an OT account 12.

5 Competing analyses 12.6 Conclusion Further reading Chapter 13 Constraining the model 13.1 Constraining derivational phonology: abstractness 13.1.1 Learnability 13.1.2 Synchrony and diachrony 13.1.

3 Plausibility 13.2 Constraining the power of the phonological component 13.2.1 Constraining underlying representations 13.2.2 Constraining the rules 13.2.3 The organisation of phonology: Lexical Phonology 13.

3 Constraining the power of OT 13.3.1 Constraining constraints 13.3.2 Opacity 13.3.3 Stratal OT 13.3.

4 Learnability 13.4 Conclusion Further reading Glossary Bibliography Subject index Varieties of English index Languages index.