Preface ix 1 Introduction to Life Cycle Assessment 1 References from the LCA Handbook 1 Aims of the Chapter 2 1.1 Purpose of the Student Handbook 2 1.2 Why LCA? 2 1.3 Evolution of Environmental toward Life Cycle Thinking 2 1.4 Examples of Environmental Impact Trade-Offs 7 1.5 LCA Methodology 11 1.6 Maintaining Transparency (Openness) 15 1.7 Conclusions 16 References 16 Chapter 1 Exercises 18 2 Goal and Scope Definition in Life Cycle Assessment 19 References from the LCA Handbook 19 Aims of the Chapter 20 2.

1 Introduction 20 2.2 Components of a Well-Defined Study 22 2.2.1 System Function 23 2.2.2 Functional Unit 23 2.2.3 Defining the System Boundaries (Scoping) 28 2.

2.4 Co-Product Allocation 29 2.2.5 Impact Assessment 29 2.3 Consequential LCA 30 2.4 Carbon Footprint versus LCA 30 2.5 Creating a Goal Statement 31 2.6 Preparing a Goal and Scope Document 34 References 35 Appendix: Hypothetical Example of a Comparative, Attributional Life Cycle Assessment to Support Government Decision Making 36 Chapter 2 Exercises 56 3 Life Cycle Inventory 61 References from the LCA Handbook 61 Aims of the Chapter 62 3.

1 Introduction 62 3.2 Modeling Inputs and Outputs 63 3.3 Methodology Issues 64 3.3.1 Cut-Off Rules 64 3.3.2 Co-Product Allocation 66 3.3.

3 Postconsumer Recycling 68 3.3.4 Converting Scrap 71 3.3.5 Water Use 72 3.3.6 Carbon Tracking Considerations 73 3.4 Data Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis 74 3.

5 Databases and Data Sources 75 3.5.1 Private Industrial Data 77 3.5.2 Public Industrial Data 79 3.5.3 Dedicated LCI databases 79 3.5.

4 Non-LCI Data 80 3.6 Collecting LCI Data 86 3.7 Reporting Life Cycle Inventory 86 3.8 Life Cycle Inventory Data Quality 89 3.9 Economic Input/Output (EIO) Data 92 3.10 Consequential LCA 93 3.11 LCA Software 94 3.11.

1 Characteristics of LCA Software Systems 95 3.11.2 Web Tools versus Desktop Tools 95 3.11.3 Commercial Tools versus Freeware 110 3.11.4 Open Source versus Closed Source 111 3.11.

5 General LCA Tools versus Specialized Tools versus Add-Ons 112 3.11.6 Two Basic LCA Software User Types and Their Needs 113 3.11.7 The LCA Software Market 114 3.11.8 The Main LCA Software Systems 115 References 117 Chapter 3 Exercises 136 4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 137 References from the LCA Handbook 137 Aims of the Chapter 138 4.1 Introduction 138 4.

2 Choice of Impact Models and Categories 142 4.3 Current LCIA Approaches 143 4.3.1 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 144 4.3.2 Global Warming Potential 145 4.3.3 Nonrenewable Resource Depletion Potential 147 4.

3.4 Acidification Potential 149 4.3.5 Eutrophication Potential 150 4.3.6 Energy 151 4.4 The Agri-Food Sector 152 4.4.

1 Land Use 152 4.4.2 Water Use 154 LCIA Models and Tools 158 References 159 Chapter 4 Exercises 205 5 Normalization, Grouping and Weighting in Life Cycle Assessment 207 References from the LCA Handbook 207 Aims of the chapter 208 5.1 Introduction 208 5.2 Current Practice of Normalization and Weighting in LCIA 210 5.3 Principles of External Normalization 211 5.4 Issues with External Normalization 212 5.5 Inherent Data Gaps 212 5.

6 Masking Salient Aspects 212 5.7 Compensation 214 5.8 Spatial Boundaries and Time Frames 214 5.9 Divergence in Databases 214 5.10 Principles of Internal Normalization 215 5.11 Compensatory Methods 215 5.12 Partially Compensatory Methods 216 5.13 Weighting 217 5.

14 Multi-Criteria Decision Making 219 References 220 Appendix: TRACI 2.1 Normalization Factors 222 6 Life Cycle Assessment: Interpretation and Reporting 225 References from the LCA Handbook 225 Aims of the Chapter 226 6.1 Introduction 226 6.2 LCA Interpretation according to ISO 228 6.3 Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis 230 6.3.1 Uncertainty Analysis 230 6.3.

2 Uncertainty in Impact Models 230 6.3.3 Sensitivity Analysis 231 A SIMPLE BUT NON-LINEAR SYSTEM 232 6.3.4 Monte Carlo Simulation 233 6.4 Contribution Analysis 234 6.5 Presenting LCIA Results 236 6.6 Preparing the Final Report 236 6.

7 The Review Process 241 6.7.1 ISO-Defined LCA Review 241 6.7.2 Conduct of an LCA Review 242 6.7.3 Review of Inventory Data 243 6.7.

4 Timing the Review 243 6.8 Product Category Rules and Environmental Product Declarations 244 6.8.1 Type III Environmental Product Declarations 245 6.8.2 An EPD is a Document 245 6.8.3 An EPD is Primarily Based on LCA 246 6.

8.4 An EPD is Developed by Following a "Product Category Rule" 246 6.8.5 An EPD can contain other Relevant Information beyond the LCA 246 6.8.6 Further Information on EPDs and PCRs 247 References 247 Chapter 6 Exercises 249 7 Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment 253 References from the LCA Handbook 253 Aims of the Chapter 253 7.1 Introduction 254 7.2 Life Cycle Assessment and Sustainability 255 7.

3 A Framework for LCSA 258 7.3.1 Broadening of the Object of Analysis 260 7.3.2 Broadening of the Spectrum of Indicators 261 7.3.3 Deepening 264 7.4 Social Responsibility 266 7.

4.1 The Social LCA Framework 267 7.4.2 Iterative process of Social Life Cycle Assessment 268 7.4.3 SLCA and other Key Social Responsibility References and Instruments 275 7.5 Research Needs for LCSA Methodology 279 References 281 Chapter 7 Exercises 286 8 Resources for Conducting Life Cycle Assessment 287 Books 287 Organizations 288 LCA Centers and Societies 292 Glossary 297.