In This Section: I) Overview of Changes II) Chapter-by-Chapter Changes I) ) Overview of Changes A massive updating of the past four years of empirical research within each content area, from survival to problems of group living. New theoretical developments within the field of evolutionary psychology. Entirely new major section on the evolutionary psychology of religion II) Chapter-by-Chapter Changes Chapter 1: The Scientific Movements Leading to Evolutionary Psychology New material on why most people find natural selection and evolutionary time scales difficulty to conceptualize. How ancestral behavior can sometimes be inferred from evidence such as fossils of humans skulls and skeletons containing human-inflicted trauma. Note about the true discoverer of the phenomenon of "imprinting," which was not Konrad Lorenz, but rather Douglas Spalding. New references to modern debate about group selection and multi-level selection. New studies showing that modern humans have small amounts of Neanderthal DNA, which suggests some degree of interbreeding, albeit a small amount. Chapter 2: The New Science of Evolutionary Psychology Reference to new meta-analysis on effects of ovulation cycle on female mate preferences.
Mention and citation of evolutionary psychological hypotheses that have been empirically falsified. Discussion of how adaptations are geared toward statistically recurrent information, such as visible cues to fertility, that would have been available to ancestors. Mention that people learn prestige criteria from their local culture. Chapter 3: Combatting the Hostile Forces of Nature: Human Survival Problems New discussion of the emotion of ''disgust'' and its effect on the physiological immune system as well as the behavioral immune system--new theory and empirical research. New discussion of the adaptation of ''sexual disgust,'' and how sexual contact can be an important vector of disease transmission. Discussion of new research that shows that women more than men prefer colors linked with fruit ripeness; make more fine-grained taste discriminations; have a better memory for tastes; and show superiority at discriminating and remembering different types of plants. New raft of empirical research on spatial navigation abilities of women and men. New research on adaptations to dangers from predators and other humans, including how people position themselves in bedrooms against potential nighttime intruders.
Why bringing flowers into hospital rooms speeds recovery of patients. New research on auditory looming bias. New research on prepared social learning in children about dangerous animals. New findings on human deaths caused by violence from 11 studies of traditional South American cultures, showing startling rates of roughly 30%, mostly male. Chapter 4: Women''s Long-Term Mating Strategies Massive study of over 21,000 Germans on women''s mate preferences for resources and generosity. Studies of mating relationship regret with men who are ''stingy.'' The influence of possessing luxury cars and apartments on mate attractiveness. Why women do not prefer men who are too much older, in part linked to men''s decline in fertility and increased risk of genetic abnormalities linked with men''s sperm.
Women who are fearful of crime elevate importance of mates who are physically strong, supporting the ''body-guard hypothesis.'' Context-specific mate preferences of women linked to prevailing health status of culture and link to preference for masculine feature in men. How co-residence duration predicts sexual aversions to peers with whom one grows up. New research on the emotion of envy with respect to mating rivals. Chapter 5: Men''s Long-Term Mating Strategies As men get older, they prefer women increasingly younger--new study of 21,245 Germans ranging in age from 18 - 65. New research on cues to attractiveness, including the super-white sclera, the whites of eyes surrounding the iris, which turns out to be a health cue. Research showing that facial femininity is linked to disease resistance. The effects of high heels on biomechanical gait (stride, rotation and tilt of hips) and perceptions of femininity.
New cross-cultural research on waist-to-hip ratio as a cue to attractiveness and fertility. New raft of research studies on ovulation effects on women''s clothing styles, skin exposure, behavior, and sexual signals. The effects of women''s long-term mating mind-set on self-presentation of cues to sexual fidelity and derogation of rivals on the dimension of promiscuity. New findings on actual non-paternity rates, which turn out to be lower than previously believed. New research testing different theories of male homosexuality. Context effects on men''s mating psychology, including causes of shifts toward preferring more feminine facial features. Findings on ''the lipstick effect,'' whereby women spend more money on beauty-enhancement products during economic hard times. Chapter 6: Short-Term Mating Strategies New cross-cultural studies from France and Denmark on receptivity to sex with strangers.
New section on tactics for avoiding entangling commitments when pursuing short-term mating strategies. Entirely new section on ''cues to sexual exploitability.'' New studies on gender differences in sexual regret, including a massive study of more than 20,000 people. Predictors of female orgasm as a function of masculinity and attractiveness of the man. Effects of short-term sex on status and reputation. Predictors of polyandry, where a surplus of men predicts women marrying more than one man, typically brothers. Personality predictors of a preference for one-night stands, including narcissism. Chapter 7: Problems of Parenting Women engage in ''nesting behavior'' when pregnant, including urges to re-organize their houses.
Evidence that divorce rarely diminishes a mother''s love for her children, but more often hampers father-child relationships. Work on ''the baby effect,'' that shows that men reduce risk-taking when paired with a baby in lab settings. Parents, compared with non-parents, perceive strange men as more physically formidable and menacing, reflecting a hypothesized parenting adaptation. Infant death as a key adaptive problem in ancestral environments, as reflected in high rates of infant mortality in traditional cultures. Higher levels of child maltreatment in circumstances of high parasite stress. New empirical tests of the Trivers-Willard hypothesis in humans. When people introduce potential mates to their parents and what it signals. Chapter 8: Problems of Kinship Sibling competition increases as parents acquire more resources--a new study from Ethiopia.
New research on kin-recognition cues, and reaction to faces that are dissimilar to one''s own. Effects of kinship insult on aggression. New studies on kinship and food sharing in Nicaragua, Tanzania, Indonesia, and Saami reindeer herders of Norway. The importance of kin contact after marriage for women of Himba, a group of semi-nomadic African pastoralists. New study from Thailand on effects of living with kin on inter-birth interval. New research on the effects of maternal grandmothers on survival rates of grandchildren. Chapter 9: Cooperative Alliances Reciprocal alliances in chimpanzees, including grooming and food sharing. Facial expressions of enjoyment such as smiling predict subsequent cooperation in prisoner''s dilemma games; those of contempt predict non-cooperation.
New research on memory for faces that are angry, have cheated, and controversy over the specificity or generality of adaptive memory. Effect of the ''walk away'' rule on cooperation. New research on the effects of a healthy appearance on evoking cooperation. Effects of enduring pain for the group and other costly signals on altruism and esteem. The ''newcomer effect'' in makes oneself ''irreplaceable. The influence of relative attractiveness of female friends on mating rivalry. Friends as potential mate poachers. The effects of free-riding on reputation among the Turkana, a nomadic society in East Africa, and implications for evol.