Book Table of Contents Dedication Foreword Preface to the 3rd Edition 1. Introduction 1.1 THE THREE I''S OF VIRTUAL REALITY 1.2 EARLY VIRTUAL REALITY 1.3 FIRST COMMERCIAL VIRTUAL REALITY 1.4 VIRTUAL REALITY AT THE TURN OF THE MILENIUM 1.5 VIRTUAL REALITY IN THE 21ST CENTURY 1.5 COMPONENTS OF CLASSICAL AND MODERN VIRTUAL REALITY SYSTEMS 1.

6 REVIEW QUESTIONS REFERENCES 2. Input Devices: Trackers, Navigation, Gesture and Neural Interfaces 2.1 THREE-DIMENSIONAL POSITION TRACKERS 2.1.1 Tracker performance parameters 2.1.2 Electromagnetic trackers Trackers using alternating current (AC) magnetic fields Trackers using direct current (DC) magnetic fields Comparison of AC and DC Magnetic Trackers Accuracy Degradation 2.1.

3 Optical Trackers Passive Camera-based Optical Trackers Active Camera-based Optical Trackers Time-of-Flight Optical Trackers Consumer-Grade Optical Trackers Inside-looking-out Optical Trackers Eye Trackers for Head-Mounted Displays 2.1.4 Optical Tracker Accuracy Degradation 2.1.5 Hybrid Inertia Trackers Hybrid inertial-optical trackers 2.1.6 Global Positioning System Trackers 2.2 NAVIGATION AND MANIPULATION INTERFACES 2.

2.1 Desktop Navigation Interfaces 2.2.2 Hand-held Navigation and Manipulation Interfaces The FlightStick3 Game controllers are navigation and manipulation interfaces 2.2.3 Locomotion interfaces The Cybershoes Arcade The Omni Treadmill 2.3 GESTURE INTERFACES 2.3.

1 Sensing Gloves The 5DT Ultra Glove Ultra 14 The CyberGlove II The Cyberglove-HT 2.3.2 Natural hand tracking Natural vs Sensing Glove-based Hand Tracking 2.4 NEURAL INTERFACES 2.4.1 Research-grade Brain-Computer Interfaces 2.4.2 Consumer-grade Brain-Computer Interfaces 2.

5 CONCLUSIONS 2.6 REVIEW QUESTIONS REFERENCES 3. Output Devices: Graphics Displays 3.1 THE HUMAN VISION SYSTEM 3.2 GRAPHICS DISPLAY CHARACTERISRICS 3.3 DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES 3.3.1 Displays using LCD technology 3.

3.2 Displays using OLED technology 3.4 PERSONAL GRAPHICS DISPLAYS 3.4.1 Smart phones as VR displays Smart phones as input devices Smart phone use in HMDs 3.4.2 Head-Mounted Displays Fixed-resolution HMD optics Foveated HMD optics Foveated HMDs which reduce native resolution Foveated HMDs which increase native resolution Head-Mounted Displays weight and weight distribution The FOVE 0 HMD The Oculus Quest 2 HMD The HTC VIVE Focus 3 The Pimax Vision 8K X HMD 3.4.

3 Desk Supported Personal Displays Autostereoscopic monitors 3D Monitors 3.5 LARGE VOLUME DISPLAYS 3.5.1 Liquid Crystal Tiled Large-Volume Displays Tiled wall displays Tiled CAVE displays 3.5.2 Projector-based Large-Volume Displays Dome-type large volume displays Tiled Display Scene Continuity Geometrical continuity Visual continuity Temporal continuity 3.6 MICRO-LED WALLS AND HOLOGRAPHIC DISPLAYS 3.6.

1 Micro-LED Walls 3.6.2 Holographic displays 3.7 CONCLUSIONS 3.8 REVIEW QUESTIONS REFERENCES 4. Output Devices: Three-Dimensional Sound, Haptic Displays, Olfactory Displays 4.1 THREE-DIMENSIONAL SOUND DISPLAYS 4.1.

1 Localized vs. Non-Localized sound 4.1.2 The Human Auditory System Azimuth Cues Elevation Cues Range cues 4.1.3 Head-Related Transfer Function 4.1.4 Generic Convolvotron Architecture Spatialized sound for all-in-one HMDs 4.

1.5 Speaker-based 3-D Sound 4.1.6 Wearable Sound Interfaces 4.2 HAPTIC DISPLAYS 4.2.1 The Human Haptic System Human Haptic Sensing System Human Sensory-Motor Control 4.2.

2 Tactile Feedback Interfaces The CyberTouch II glove The HaptX DK2 touch feedback glove The Tactsuit X whole body tactile feedback Temperature Feedback Interfaces 4.2.3 Force Feedback Interfaces The Touch X Arm The Delta.3 Force Feedback Arm The Armeo Power SenseGlove Nova Force Feedback Glove 4.3 OLFACTORY DISPLAYS 4.3.1 The Human Olfactory System 4.3.

2 Olfactory Systems for VR Ambient Olfactory Displays Air Cannon-based Olfactory Display Wearable Olfactory Displays 4.4 CONCLUSIONS 4.5 REVIEW QUESTIONS REFERENCES 5. Computing Architectures for VR 5.1 THE RENDERING PIPELINE 5.1.1 The Graphics Rendering Pipeline Traditional Graphics Rendering Pipeline Modern Graphics Rendering Pipeline A graphics pipeline example Anti-aliasing Graphics Pipeline Bottlenecks Graphics Pipeline Optimization 5.1.

2 The Haptic Rendering Pipeline 5.2 GAMING DESKTOP ARCHITECTURES 5.2.1 The 12th Generation Core CPU and Chip Set 5.2.2 Cooling of Gaming PCs 5.2.3 Graphics Accelerator Cards for PCs The NVIDIA GTX 1080 Founder''s Edition graphics card NVIDIA GeForce RTX 4090 graphics card The NVIDIA GeForce RTX 4090 graphics card 5.

3 GRAPHICS BENCHMARKS 5.3.2 The SPECviewperf 2020 benchmarks 5.3.3 A Frame Capture Analysis Tool for Virtual Reality 5.4 DISTRIBUTED VR ARCHITECTURES 5.4.1 Split Rendering 5.

4.2 Co-located Rendering Pipelines 5.4.3 Multi-pipeline synchronization Synchronization of haptic and graphics pipelines Synchronization of co-located graphics pipelines Pipeline synchronization using the NVIDIA Quadro Sync II card 5.4.4 Cloud Rendering A Cloud Rendering Architecture Example Cloud Rendering Latency 5.5 CONCLUSIONS 5.6 REVIEW QUESTIONS REFERENCES 6.

Modeling Virtual Environments 6.1 GEOMETRIC MODELING 6.1.2 Virtual Object Shape Using a 3D Authoring Software Importing CAD files Creating surfaces with 3D scanners Using online 3D object databases 6.1.3 Object Visual Appearance Scene Illumination Texture Mapping 6.2 KINEMATICS MODELING 6.2.

1 Homogeneous transformation matrices 6.2.2 Object Position 6.2.3 Transformation Invariants 6.2.4 Object hierarchies 6.2.

5 Viewing the 3-D World 6.3 PHYSICAL MODELING 6.3.1 Collision Detection Collision detection for large virtual environments 6.3.2 Collision Response Involving Object Surfaces Topology-preserving collision response Topology-altering collision response Surface cutting and stitching Object morphing 6.3.3 Contact Force Modeling Contact Forces when Deforming Elastic Objects Contact Forces when Deforming Plastic Objects Contact Forces when Interacting with Virtual Walls 6.

3.4 Force Smoothing and Mapping 6.3.5 Haptic Texturing Haptic textures produced by non-wearable interfaces Haptic textures produced by wearable interfaces 6.4 BEHAVIOR MODELING 6.4.1 Simple behavior models 6.4.

2 Enhanced behavior models 6.4.4 Crowd behavior models 6.5 MODEL MANAGEMENT 6.5.1 Level-of-Detail Management Discrete Level-of-Detail Management Continuous Level-of-Detail Management Adaptive Level-of-Detail Management Using Foveated Rendering Adaptive Level-of-Detail Management Guaranteeing Frame Time 6.5.2 Cell Segmentation Automatic Cell Segmentation 3-D Cell Segmentation 6.

6 CONCLUSION 6.7 REVIEW QUESTIONS REFERENCES 7. Virtual Reality Programming 7.1 SCENE GRAPHS AND TOOLKITS 7.1.1 Scene Graphs Internal scene graphs Distributed scene graphs 7.1.2 Toolkits 7.

2 JAVA3D 7.2.1 Java 3D Model Geometry and Appearance 7.2.2 Java3D Scene Graph 7.2.3 Java3D Sensors and Behaviors 7.2.

4 Java3D Networking 7.3 THE VIZARD TOOLKIT 7.3.1 Vizard Model Geometry and Appearance Model Geometry Model appearance 7.3.2 Vizard Scene Graph 7.3.3 Vizard Sensors and Behaviors Vizard Physics Engine Vizard OpenHaptics Plug-in 7.

3.4 Vizard Networking 7.4 THE OPENHAPTICS TOOLKIT 7.4.1 OpenHaptics Integration with the Graphics Pipeline 7.4.2 OpenHaptics QuickHaptics Micro API 7.4.

3 OpenHaptics Haptic Device to Screen Mapping 7.4.5 OpenHaptics Unity Plugin 7.5 UNITY 3D GAME ENGINE 7.5.1 The Game Engine 7.5.2 Game Production Pipeline The pre-production pipeline stage The production pipeline stage The post-production pipeline stage 7.

5.3 Unity Game Programming Creating a New Project in Unity The Unity Editor Unity Game Objects Physics Programming in Unity Scripting in Unity 7.5.4 Artificial Intelligence in Unity Gaming Non-Player Characters, Finite State Machines and Machine Learning Unity Implementation 7.6 CONCLUSION 7.7 REVIEW QUESTIONS REFERENCES 8. Human Factors in Virtual Reality 8.1 METHODOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY 8.

1.1 The Experimental Protocol 8.1.2 Institutional Review and Participant Consent