Contents Preface Chapter 1: The Benefit of Asking the Right Questions Introduction Critical Thinking to the Rescue The Sponge and Panning for Gold: Alternative Thinking Styles An Example of the Panning-for-Gold Approach Panning for Gold: Asking Critical Questions The Myth of the "Right Answer" The Usefulness of Asking the Question, "Who Cares?" Weak-Sense and Strong-Sense Critical Thinking The Satisfaction of Using the Panning-for-Gold Approach Effective Communication and Critical Thinking The Importance of Practice The Right Questions Chapter 2: Critical Thinking Is a Social Activity Values and Other People The Primary Values of a Critical Thinker Thinking and Feelings Keeping the Conversation Going Avoiding the Dangers of Groupthink Chapter 3: What Are the Issue and the Conclusion? Kinds of Issues Searching for the Issue Searching for the Author''s or Speaker''s Conclusion Using This Critical Question Clues to Discovery: How to Find the Conclusion Critical Thinking and Your Own Writing and Speaking Practice Exercises Fred von Lohmann, "Copyright Silliness on Campus" Chapter 4: What Are the Reasons? Reasons + Conclusion = Argument Initiating the Questioning Process Words That Identify Reasons Kinds of Reasons Keeping the Reasons and Conclusions Straight Critical Thinking and Your Own Writing and Speaking Practice Exercises David Horowitz, "College Professors Should Be Made to Teach, Not Preach" Chapter 5: What Words or Phrases Are Ambiguous? The Confusing Flexibility of Words Locating Key Terms and Phrases Checking for Ambiguity Using This Critical Question Determining Ambiguity Context and Ambiguity Using This Critical Question Ambiguity, Definitions, and the Dictionary Ambiguity and Loaded Language Limits of Your Responsibility to Clarify Ambiguity Ambiguity and Your Own Writing and Speaking Summary Practice Exercises New York Times editoriall, "Juvenile Injustice" Chapter 6: What Are the Value and Descriptive Assumptions? General Guide for Identifying Assumptions Value Conflicts and Assumptions From Values to Value Assumptions Typical Value Conflicts The Communicator''s Background as a Clue to Value Assumptions Consequences as Clues to Value Assumptions More Hints for Finding Value Assumptions Avoiding a Typical Difficulty When Identifying Value Assumptions Finding Value Assumptions on Your Own Using This Critical Question Values and Relativism Identifying and Evaluating Descriptive Assumptions Illustrating Descriptive Assumptions Using this Critical Question Clues for Locating Assumptions Avoiding Analysis of Trivial Assumptions Assumptions and Your Own Writing and Speaking Practice Exercises Religion News Blog, "Should We Legalize Marijuana?" Chapter 7: Are There Any Fallacies in the Reasoning? A Questioning Approach to Finding Reasoning Fallacies Evaluating Assumptions as a Starting Point Discovering Other Common Reasoning Fallacies Looking for Diversions Sleight of Hand: Begging the Question Using This Critical Question Summary of Reasoning Errors Expanding Your Knowledge of Fallacies Fallacies and Your Own Writing and Speaking Practice Exercises Jacob Sullum, "Gun Control Non Sequiturs" Chapter 8: How Good Is the Evidence: Intuition, Personal Experience, Testimonials, and Appeals to Authority? The Need for Evidence Locating Factual Claims Sources of Evidence Intuition as Evidence Dangers of Appealing to Personal Experience as Evidence Testimonials as Evidence Appeals to Authority as Evidence Problems with Citers Citing Other Citers Using This Critical Question Summary Practice Exercises Isabel Lyman, "Homeschooling Comes of Age" Chapter 9: How Good Is the Evidence: Personal Observation, Research Studies, Case Examples, and Analogies? Personal Observation Research Studies as Evidence Generalizing from the Research Sample Biased Surveys and Questionnaires Critical Evaluation of a Research-Based Argument Case Examples as Evidence Analogies as Evidence Identifying and Comprehending Analogies Evaluation Analogies Summary Practice Exercises Neela Banerjee, "Americans Change Faiths as Rising Rate, Report Finds" Chapter 10 Are There Rival Causes? When to Look for Rival Causes The Pervasiveness of Rival Causes Detecting Rival Causes The Cause or A Cause Rival Causes and Scientific Research Rival Causes for Differences Between Groups Confusing Causation with Association Confusing "After this" with "Because of this" Explaining Individual Events or Acts Evaluating Rival Causes Using This Critical Question Evidence and Your Own Writing and Speaking Summary Practice Exercises Cathy Arnst, "The World According to Disney" Chapter 11: Are the Statistics Deceptive? Unknowable and Biased Statistics Confusing Averages Concluding One Thing, Proving Another Deceiving by Omitting Information Risk Statistics and Omitted Information Summary Practice Exercises Buddy T, About.com Guide, "College Drinking, Drug Use Grows More Extreme" Chapter 12: What Significant Information Is Omitted? The Benefits of Detecting Omitted Information The Certainty of Incomplete Reasoning Questions that Identify Omitted Information The Importance of the Negative View Omitted Information That Remains Missing Using This Critical Question Practice Exercises Radley Balko, "Back to 18?" Chapter 13: What Reasonable Conclusions Are Possible? Assumptions and Multiple Conclusions Dichotomous Thinking: Impediment to Considering Multiple.