Preface xi 1 The Reality of Groups 1 Definition 1 The Individual-Group Relationship 2 The Interpersonal-Group Continuum 4 Three Unifying Themes: Social Identity, Social Context and Social Action 6 Summary 11 Further Reading 12 References 12 2 Group Formation and Other Elementary Group Processes 15 Interdependence 15 All in the Same Boat: Interdependence of Fate 16 Working with Others: Task Interdependence 17 Social Categorisation 19 From Individuals to a Group: Entitativity 19 Us and Them: Intergroup Differentiation and Intragroup Assimilation 22 When ''We'' Deserve More than ''Them'': Minimal Conditions for Intergroup Discrimination 23 Why Do They (and We) Look all the Same? Perceived Intragroup Assimilation (Homogeneity) 26 On being Similar or Different but still a Group: Individuality, Interaction, and Entitativity 28 Not Only in Our Heads: The Pragmatic and Rhetorical Use of Categories 30 Joining and Interacting in Groups: Some Elementary Group Processes 31 Joining Groups 31 From Getting Together to Sticking Together: Group Cohesion 36 What Goes on in Groups? Achieving the Task and Maintaining Relationships 41 Summary 42 Further Reading 43 References 43 3 Reaching Agreement in Groups 51 The Acquisition and Development of Group Norms 51 The Acquisition of Group Norms 52 Why People need Norms: Individual Functions of Group Norms 53 Why Groups need Norms: Social Functions of Norms 55 Stability and Change 56 The Power of the Majority 58 The Pervasiveness of Conformity 59 Why do People Conform? 61 Standing Out from the Crowd: On being a Deviate 65 Going to Extremes: Reaching Decisions in Groups 70 Explanations of Group Polarisation 71 Concluding Remarks on Group Polarisation 76 Summary 77 Further Reading 78 References 78 4 Innovation and Change in Groups 85 Minority Influence 85 Majority-Minority Influence is a Dynamic Process 88 Social Categorisation and Minority Influence: Which Group does the Minority Belong to? 91 Two Influence Processes or One? 91 Concluding Comments 99 Leadership 100 Coercion and Reward 100 Charisma 102 Leadership Styles 105 Interaction of Leader Style and Situation 106 Leaders as Committed Group Members 109 Leader Prototypicality 110 Serving Group Interests 112 ''Entrepreneurs'' and ''Embedders'' of Identity 113 Authority 115 Summary 116 Further Reading 117 References 117 5 The Effectiveness of Groups 124 Group Productivity 125 Does the Presence of Others Help or Hinder Performance? 125 Are Two Heads (or Bodies) better than One? 126 Potential and Actual Productivity: Theories of Group Deficit 128 Two Heads (or Bodies) really can be better than One: The Benefits of Working in Groups 133 Group Decision-Making 140 Modeling Group Decisions: Social Decision Schemes Theory 140 The Quality of Decision-Making Process 142 Groups can be Good for You 146 Resilience 146 Health and Well-being 150 Summary 152 Further Reading 153 Group Productivity 153 Group Decision-Making 153 Health and Well-being Benefits of Groups 153 References 154 6 The Morality of Groups 161 Are Groups really more Aggressive than Individuals? Collective Aggression and Violence 161 Deindividuation 162 Experimental Evidence concerning Groups and Antisocial Behaviour 163 The Stanford Prison Experiment 166 How Group Norms shape the Nature of Crowd Violence 169 Identity Transformation and Emergence of Conflict in Crowds 171 Online Aggression 172 Groups and Helping Behaviour 174 The Bystander Effect and its Limits 174 Solidarity within the Group 176 Helping the Outgroup 182 Summary 184 Further Reading 185 References 186 7 Conflict and Inequality 191 Intergroup Relations and Real Group Interests 192 The Development of an Intergroup Perspective 192 The Summer Camp Studies 194 Lessons from the Summer Camps 196 Extending the Realistic Conflict Approach 197 ''Real World'' Evidence 197 Stereotypes and Intergroup Relations 198 Fear, Anger, Disgust, and Other Emotions 201 The Outgroup as Sub-human 203 Hierarchy and Oppression 206 Divide and Rule 206 Consensual Discrimination 207 Ambivalent Sexism 208 Outgroup Favoritism and System Justification 210 Social Dominance Theory 212 Social Dominance Orientation 213 Evaluating Social Dominance Theory 216 Integrating SDO and RWA 218 Summary 219 Further Reading 220 References 220 8 Rebellion and Social Change 227 Angry Rejection of the Status Quo 228 Anger 230 Social Identity Theory 235 Individual Mobility 236 Social Creativity 239 Changing the Dimension of Comparison 240 Downward Social Comparison 242 Redefining the Meaning of the Devalued Attribute 242 Social Competition 243 Winning the Solidarity of the Advantaged 243 Resentment and Backlash 244 Experiencing Illegitimate Privilege 246 Intergroup Contact and Collective Action 248 Consequences of Collective Action 250 Summary 252 Further Reading 253 References 253 9 Bringing Groups Together 261 Getting to Know You: Intergroup Contact and Prejudice Reduction 262 Elaborating the Contact Hypothesis 263 How to make Contact Work Better: Decategorisation, Categorisation, or Recategorisation? 263 Understanding how Contact Works: The Role of Emotion 268 Indirect Forms of Contact: Extended, Vicarious and Imagined 270 Intergroup Contact and its Critics 275 "From Both Sides Now": The Importance of both Victim and Perpetrator Emotions 279 Group-Based Emotions: Guilt, Shame, Victimhood, and Forgiveness 283 Living Together or Living Apart: The Challenges of Diversity and Multi-culturalism 287 Acculturation and Well-Being in Minority Groups 288 Acculturation and Intergroup Relations 291 Summary 294 Further Reading 295 References 295 Name Index 309 Subject Index 325.